[ { "id": "Alumina from anorthosite", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Alumina from anorthosite", "name": "Alumina from anorthosite", "sector": [ "Industry", "Aluminium", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "Alumina is generally produced from bauxite ore. The Aranda-Mastin technology uses anorthosite, a calcium aluminum silicate, to produce smelter grade alumina while eliminating tailings. The byproducts of the process would be amorphous silica and calcium silicate.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "CO2 capture in the bayer process", "breadcrumb": "Industry > CO2 capture in the bayer process", "name": "CO2 capture in the bayer process", "sector": [ "Industry", "Aluminium", "With carbon capture" ], "description": "CCS could potentially be applied in the aluminium sector to capture emissions from alumina refining (fuel combustion). This covers application in the alumina sector.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "There seems limited investigation of CCS in alumina refining more widely.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Electricity for heat in the bayer process", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Electricity for heat in the bayer process", "name": "Electricity for heat in the bayer process", "sector": [ "Industry", "Aluminium", "Shift in energy sources and electrification" ], "description": "The Bayer process - the main method to refine bauxite into alumina (the input to aluminium smelting) - requires 100 to 250 °C heat and steam for digestion and 1000 °C heat for calcination, which are currently delivered using fossil fuels. Testing is underway to use electricity for both digestion heat and for calcination.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Alternative fuels provide a good prospect for reducing alumina refining emissions. Alumina refining is a key source of the sector's emissions, so it will be important to develop technologies to reduce them in moving towards net zero emissions. Electrification is the most developed technology being deployed at the moment, so likely has the largest relevance for net zero.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Electrification of high-temperature heat for ancillary processes in aluminium production", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Electrification of high-temperature heat for ancillary processes in aluminium production", "name": "Electrification of high-temperature heat for ancillary processes in aluminium production", "sector": [ "Industry", "Aluminium", "Shift in energy sources and electrification" ], "description": "Electricity can be used to provide high temperature heat for ancillary processes in aluminium manufacturing. This can be through more standard electric heating systems, or novel technologies such as using plasma torches for as a heating source in cast houses' finishing processes (ex. rolling).", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Ancillary processes are not major energy and emissions sources.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Firmed renewables for aluminium smelting", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Firmed renewables for aluminium smelting", "name": "Firmed renewables for aluminium smelting", "sector": [ "Industry", "Aluminium", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "Aluminium smelting is a massive power consumer. Developments in powering aluminium smelting with a high percentage of electricity supplied by intermittent renewables, firmed by battery storage or other technologies, can reduce emissions and enable shifts from captive fossil fuelled power.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "With increasing penetration of renewables, electricity supply arrangements like this are likely to become more common.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "High share of biomass fuel in the bayer process", "breadcrumb": "Industry > High share of biomass fuel in the bayer process", "name": "High share of biomass fuel in the bayer process", "sector": [ "Industry", "Aluminium", "Shift in energy sources and electrification" ], "description": "The Bayer process - the main method to refine bauxite into alumina (the input to aluminium smelting) - requires 100 to 250 °C heat and steam for digestion and 1000 °C heat for calcination, which are currently delivered using fossil fuels. Testing is underway to use biomass for both digestion heat in boilers\/co-generation and for calcination.", "supplyChain": [ "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Alternative fuels provide a good prospect for reducing alumina refining emissions. Alumina refining is a key source of the sector's emissions, so it will be important to develop technologies to reduce them in moving towards net zero emissions. For the scale of Alumina refining, biomass potentially has lower applicability than other heat sources.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen for high-temperature heat for ancillary processes and secondary production", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Hydrogen for high-temperature heat for ancillary processes and secondary production", "name": "Hydrogen for high-temperature heat for ancillary processes and secondary production", "sector": [ "Industry", "Aluminium", "Shift in energy sources and electrification" ], "description": "Hydrogen can be used to provide high temperature heat for ancillary processes in aluminium manufacturing, such as finishing processes (ex. rolling), or heat treatment of aluminium and alloys.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Ancillary processes are not major energy and emissions sources.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen in the bayer process", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Hydrogen in the bayer process", "name": "Hydrogen in the bayer process", "sector": [ "Industry", "Aluminium", "Shift in energy sources and electrification" ], "description": "The Bayer process - the main method to refine bauxite into alumina (the input to aluminium smelting) - requires 100 to 250 °C heat and steam for digestion and 1000 °C heat for calcination, which are currently delivered using fossil fuels. Testing is underway to use hydrogen for both digestion heat in boilers\/co-generation and for calcination.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Alternative fuels provide a good prospect for reducing alumina refining emissions. Alumina refining is a key source of the sector's emissions, so it will be important to develop technologies to reduce them in moving towards net zero emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Primary smelting with chloride electrolysis", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Primary smelting with chloride electrolysis", "name": "Primary smelting with chloride electrolysis", "sector": [ "Industry", "Aluminium", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "This is a different production process to the Hall-Heroult process currently used commercially. This converts alumina to aluminium chloride before to electrolysis. In this process, carbon and chlorine are recycled and reused in a closed loop, eliminating emissions of CO2 and emitting oxygen instead.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This process would enable removal of process emissions from aluminium smelting.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Primary smelting with inert anode", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Primary smelting with inert anode", "name": "Primary smelting with inert anode", "sector": [ "Industry", "Aluminium", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "Primary aluminium smelting currently relies on carbon anodes, which produce CO2 as they are consumed during the electrolysis process. These anodes themselves participate in the reaction (effectively 'pulling' oxygen atoms away from alumina - Al2O3 - to produce pure aluminium), and CO2 is also emitted during the production of anodes, which require baking in an oven or furnace. Inert anodes produce pure oxygen during the reaction instead of CO2 and do not degrade. They are made from alternative materials such as metallic ceramic composites.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 6, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Inert anodes enable elimination of process emissions from aluminium smelting, which account for a large portion of the industry's direct emissions (much of the remaining associated emissions are direct emissions from the production of the intermediate product alumina from bauxite ore and indirect emissions from electricity consumed). Thus the technology would lead to considerable emission reductions, and other options to reduce process emissions (such as carbon capture and storage) have not been as extensively pursued.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Primary smelting with integrated CO2 capture", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Primary smelting with integrated CO2 capture", "name": "Primary smelting with integrated CO2 capture", "sector": [ "Industry", "Aluminium", "With carbon capture" ], "description": "CCS could potentially be applied in the aluminium sector to capture emissions from aluminium smelting (electrolysis). However, its application for smelting has been challenged by the very low concentration of CO2 in the exhaust gases from the process.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Primary smelting with multipolar cell", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Primary smelting with multipolar cell", "name": "Primary smelting with multipolar cell", "sector": [ "Industry", "Aluminium", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "While conventional Hall-Héroult cells used for aluminium electrolysis have a single-pole arrangement, multipolar cells could be produced by using bipolar electrodes or having multiple anode-cathode pairs in the same cell. They have lower operating temperatures and higher current densities, potentially reducing energy consumption by 40%. Their formulations requires pairing with inert anodes.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The technology can help reduce electricity needs, thus helping reduce pressure on the power system. However, it requires inert anodes to function, and its impact on emissions would be in terms of indirect electricity emissions (which should be decarbonising in parallel).", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Secondary aluminium production with reduced impurities", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Secondary aluminium production with reduced impurities", "name": "Secondary aluminium production with reduced impurities", "sector": [ "Industry", "Aluminium", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "Secondary production of aluminium from scrap can run into issues with impurities. Conventional reprocessing of scrap with a high content of impurities, e.g. iron and copper, in melting furnaces leads to downcycling (production of low-grade alloys with a limited scope of application), even after applying the existing treatment methods. Technologies to reduce and remove these can enable secondary aluminium to be used in a wider range of applications where current use is limited, for example in rolling and extrusion.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 5, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Solar thermal in the bayer process", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Solar thermal in the bayer process", "name": "Solar thermal in the bayer process", "sector": [ "Industry", "Aluminium", "Shift in energy sources and electrification" ], "description": "The Bayer process - the main method to refine bauxite into alumina (the input to aluminium smelting) - requires 100 to 250 °C heat and steam for digestion and 1000 °C heat for calcination, which are currently delivered using fossil fuels. Testing is underway to use concentrated solar thermal as heat input into alumina refining.", "supplyChain": [ "Heat end use" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Alternative fuels provide a good prospect for reducing alumina refining emissions. Alumina refining is a key source of the sector's emissions, so it will be important to develop technologies to reduce them in moving towards net zero emissions. Concentrated solar thermal potentially has lower applicability compared to alternatives.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Varying energy consumption and production levels including by integrating heat exchangers", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Varying energy consumption and production levels including by integrating heat exchangers", "name": "Varying energy consumption and production levels including by integrating heat exchangers", "sector": [ "Industry", "Aluminium", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "This technology varies the energy consumption and production of primary aluminium smelting, allowing it to become a more flexible electricity consumer. Smelters often have the ability to vary their electricity consumption to deal with fluctuations in electricity production from hydroelectricity, though this often comes with significant restrictions on production or impacts on equipment. One novel flexibility is the use of heat exchangers to control the heat loss of aluminium smelting pots. This allows electricity consumption and production to vary by 25% for up to several hours, without adverse impacts on the equipment. This helps manage the power grid's demand and supply fluctuations, particularly as increasing amounts of variable renewable energy are added to the grid.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 8, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, "A", null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The technology allows aluminium smelters to offer demand response services to the grid, assisting with renewable energy integration and lowering the electricity prices plants experience. This could help reduce costs and improve reliability for the power system, though it does not directly result in emissions reduction.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Battery-electric aircraft: regional (20+ seats)", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Battery-electric aircraft: regional (20+ seats)", "name": "Battery-electric aircraft: regional (20+ seats)", "sector": [ "Transport", "Aviation", "Aircrafts" ], "description": "Battery-electric aircraft operate with an on-board battery as the sole motive power source, and therefore with no direct emissions. The propulsion efficiency of battery-electric aricraft can be as much as twice as high as that of jet engine aircraft. However, compared to vehicles on the ground, aircraft face much greater fuel penalties for carrying extra weight. The energy density of today’s commercial Li-ion batteries reaches 250 Wh\/kg at cell level, which is almost 50 times less than the energy density of jet fuel. ", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (vehicles)", "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Battery-electric planes eliminate all direct emissions and other non-CO2 warming impacts. However, their role before 2050 will likely be mainlt in short flights. The deployment timeline hinges on a significant progress in battery development. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Battery-electric aircraft: taxi & commuter", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Battery-electric aircraft: taxi & commuter", "name": "Battery-electric aircraft: taxi & commuter", "sector": [ "Transport", "Aviation", "Aircrafts" ], "description": "Battery-electric aircraft operate with an on-board battery as the sole motive power source, and therefore with no direct emissions. The propulsion efficiency of battery-electric aircraft can be as much as twice as high as that of jet engine aircraft. However, compared to vehicles on the ground, aircraft face much greater fuel penalties for carrying extra weight. The significantly lower energy density of batteries compared to jet fuel explains why small, short range electric aircraft are closest to market entry.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (vehicles)", "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 7, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Battery-electric planes eliminate all direct emissions and other non-CO2 warming impacts. For short flights this could become a viable pathway to reduce emissions. The deployment timeline hinges on significant progress in battery development. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Blended wing body airframe", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Blended wing body airframe", "name": "Blended wing body airframe", "sector": [ "Transport", "Aviation", "Components" ], "description": "Blended-wing-body (BWB) designs feature a flattened, aerodynamically shaped fuselage that merges smoothly into the wing. Compared to the convential tube-and-wing designs, BWBs can significantly reduce the wetted-area-to-volume ratio and interference drag, resulting in 20% or more increases in lift to drag ratio.\n\nIntroducing a clean sheet design aircraft would disrupt common industry practice of \"incremental improvements\" to existing models, and incur much higher development costs and uncertainty. Other challenges are passenger acceptance for an aircraft with fewer windows and incorporating emergency exits in a theatre-like seating layout. \n", "supplyChain": [ "Other" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Potential to drastically improve energy efficiency of aircraft.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Direct hydrogen combustion in a jet turbine", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Direct hydrogen combustion in a jet turbine", "name": "Direct hydrogen combustion in a jet turbine", "sector": [ "Transport", "Aviation", "Components", "Hydrogen-powered aircraft components" ], "description": "Hydrogen can be used as fuel for jet engines similar to today's, leveraging on decades of jet engine development and high power density systems. Designs and control of current jet engines need to be adapted due to the higher flame speed and temperature of hydrogen compared to kerosene. The cryogenic storage of hydrogen also demands new fuel delivery systems. Jet engines are readily scalable to high thurst versions needed for large aircraft. The propulsive efficiency of jet engines is, however, smaller than for fuel cell-electric engines. Compared to fuel cell-electric engines, more of the environmental impacts (NOx emissions, contrails, noise) also persist. \n", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Using hydrogen instead of kerosene in jet engines has the potential to reduce emissions for a wide range of flights. As it is building on mature technology, the certification path could be shorter than for hydrogen fuel cell-electric engines.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Electric taxiing and ground operations", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Electric taxiing and ground operations", "name": "Electric taxiing and ground operations", "sector": [ "Transport", "Aviation", "Operations" ], "description": "Electric taxiing can avoid using an aircrafts engines to move between runway and gate and thus reduce fuel burn and emissions. Electric taxiing can be achieved by installing an electric drivetrain on the airplane, which allows for maximum autonomy but adds extra weight and complexity to aircraft and needs to go through an aircraft certification process. Alternatively, electric taxiing can be achieved through electric ground-vehicles (tugs) which are technologically simpler and need less alterations to aircraft designs. ", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (vehicles)", "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Between 5 and 10% of fuel for commercial flights is currently spent on taxiing and ground operations. Electrifying these procedures could thus significantly reduce fuel burn and emissions from aircraft.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "High aspect-ratio wings", "breadcrumb": "Transport > High aspect-ratio wings", "name": "High aspect-ratio wings", "sector": [ "Transport", "Aviation", "Components" ], "description": "When aircraft wings generate lift, there is a pressure differential between top and bottom surface of the wing. This causes a vortex to form at the wingtip which causes the so-called lift-induced drag. The longer and thinner the wings the smaller the lift induced drag. While small gliders are often designed with extreme aspect ratios (wing span * wing span \/ wing area > 50), modern airliners rarely reach beyond aspect ratios of 10, due to structural and aerodymanic challenges, trade-offs with other forms of drag, and airport limitations. \nStudies on high aspect-ratio wing (>15) aircraft designs suggest that efficiency gains of 10-20% are possible if these limitations can be overcome. ", "supplyChain": [ "Other" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "High aspect-ratio wings could contribute significantly to efficiency gains of next generation airplanes, which are a pillar in reaching net zero emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hybrid fuel-cell - gas-turbine aircraft propulsion system", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Hybrid fuel-cell - gas-turbine aircraft propulsion system", "name": "Hybrid fuel-cell - gas-turbine aircraft propulsion system", "sector": [ "Transport", "Aviation", "Components", "Hydrogen-powered aircraft components" ], "description": "In this concept, the hydrogen-fueled gas turbine would be utilised at peak peak power demand, while mainly relying on fuel cells to provide power during cruise. This could increase overall efficiency and limit power density requirements of fuel cells.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ null, null, 3, 3, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Hybrid fuel-cell gas turbine systems could enable earlier hydrogen-electric flight for larger air planes compared to propulsion relying solely on fuel cells while eliminating much of the non-CO2 impacts of hydrogen combustion engines and increasing efficiency.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hybrid-electric aircraft: regional (20+ seats)", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Hybrid-electric aircraft: regional (20+ seats)", "name": "Hybrid-electric aircraft: regional (20+ seats)", "sector": [ "Transport", "Aviation", "Aircrafts" ], "description": "Hybrid electric aircraft combine fuel-based engines with electric motors and batteries (in series, parallel or a combination of both). In most concepts, electrical energy is used during take-off, when the required thrust is highest and the efficiency of traditional jet engines is lowest. This can reduce fuel use compared to conventional aircraft significantly on short routes, while mitigating the range limitations of fully electric designs. The advantages of hybrid-electric aircraft diminish on longer missions where most energy is spent in cruise and the fuel penalty due to the battery weight increases. \n", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (vehicles)", "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Hybrid-electric aircraft can significantly reduce energy consumption and emissions, especially on shorter flights. They could also be a stepping stone towards fully-electric aircraft by alleviating range limitations.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen fuel-cell electric aircraft propulsion", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Hydrogen fuel-cell electric aircraft propulsion", "name": "Hydrogen fuel-cell electric aircraft propulsion", "sector": [ "Transport", "Aviation", "Components", "Hydrogen-powered aircraft components" ], "description": "In a hydrogen fuel-cell electric propulsion system, hydrogen combines with oxygen in a fuel cell, generating electricity for an electric moter which spins propellers or fans. These systems can reach higher efficiencies compared to jet engines and can elimate all CO2 and NOx emissions, only producing low-temperature water vapour. Challenges remain around the lower power density of fuel cells and electric motors compared to gas turbines, cooling of fuel cells during flight, and the certification of the novel technology.\n", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Fuel-cell electric propulsion could be way to drastically reduce environmental impacts from short to medium-haul flights. Scalability to larger aircraft needs developments in fuel cell and electric motor design.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen storage tank (for aircraft)", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Hydrogen storage tank (for aircraft)", "name": "Hydrogen storage tank (for aircraft)", "sector": [ "Transport", "Aviation", "Components", "Hydrogen-powered aircraft components" ], "description": "Due to its low volumetric energy density, commercially viable hydrogen aircraft would need to store liquified hydrogen (below -250°C). This requires storage tanks with a vacuum layer (to minimise heat transfer by radiation) in between other lightweight but highly durable and high-strength insulating material layers. Fuel delivery systems also need to be adapted to handle cryogenic hydrogen and to deliver the fuel to the engine at the right temperature and pressure.\n\n", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Commercially viable hydrogen aircraft require cryogenic fuel storage and delivery methods, low-cost and lightweight cryogenic tanks, and redesigned airframes to accommodate them.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen-powered aircraft: regional (20+ seats)", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Hydrogen-powered aircraft: regional (20+ seats)", "name": "Hydrogen-powered aircraft: regional (20+ seats)", "sector": [ "Transport", "Aviation", "Aircrafts" ], "description": "Hydrogen can either be burnt in jet engines directly or used in a fuel cell to produce electricity to power an electric motor. While hydrogen has high gravimetric energy density—three times higher than kerosene—the volumetric density is significantly lower. To limit the size of fuel tanks, hydrogen needs to be liquefied (-253°C). Accomodating such tanks likely needs new airframe concepts. Further challenges arise around the power density of fuel cells and electric motors which need to be scaled up to satisfy power and weight requirements of larger aircraft. Finally, infrastructure for handling cryogenic hydrogen would need to be established at airports.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Hydrogen aircraft could fly without CO2 or NOx emissions and significantly reduce non CO2 aviation impacts. Due to the higher energy density compared to batteries, hydrogen aircraft could become an option for larger aircraft and longer flights. However, many engineering challenges remain to be solved before certification of such aircraft comes into reach and hydrogen infrastructure at airports needs to be developed alongside.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen-powered aircraft: short-\/medium-haul (100+ seats)", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Hydrogen-powered aircraft: short-\/medium-haul (100+ seats)", "name": "Hydrogen-powered aircraft: short-\/medium-haul (100+ seats)", "sector": [ "Transport", "Aviation", "Aircrafts" ], "description": "Hydrogen can either be burnt in jet engines directly or used in a fuel cell to produce electricity to power an electric motor. While hydrogen has high gravimetric energy density—three times higher than kerosene—the volumetric density is significantly lower. To limit the size of fuel tanks, hydrogen needs to be liquefied(-253°C). Accomodating such tanks likely needs new airframe concepts. Further challenges arise around the power density of fuel cells and electric motors which need to be scaled up to satisfy power and weight requirements of larger aircraft. Finally, infrastructure for handling cryogenic hydrogen would need to be established at airports.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Hydrogen aircraft could fly without CO2 or NOx emissions and significantly reduce non CO2 aviation impacts. Due to the higher energy density compared to batteries, hydrogen aircraft could become an option for larger aircraft and longer flights. However, many engineering challenges remain to be solved before certification of such aircraft comes into reach and a rollout of hydrogen infrastructure at airports needs to develop alongside.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Open rotor engine", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Open rotor engine", "name": "Open rotor engine", "sector": [ "Transport", "Aviation", "Components" ], "description": "Bypass ratios of commercial turbofans have increased continuously over the last 50 years, contributing greatly to fuel efficiency improvements of aircraft. Modern engines reach bypass ratios of up to 12:1. In conventional jet engines, the fan blades are contained in a duct which has to increase in diameter with the blades, causing increased drag. This increasing drag counteracts efficiency gains from increasing blade size and bypass ratios in conventional engines. Open rotors overcome this limitation by eliminating the duct around the fan, allowing to significantly increase bypass ratios and efficiency over current models (20%). \nOpen rotor engines have been explored since the 1970s but have not found commercial application yet. Challenges remain in limiting noise, designing very large blades and integrating these into airframes.", "supplyChain": [ "Other" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Open rotor have the potential to deliver significant efficiency gains over today's engines. They would be most advantageous for short- to medium haul routes and could be an option for the next generation of single-aisle jets which is the most common airplane size.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Propulsion-airframe integration", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Propulsion-airframe integration", "name": "Propulsion-airframe integration", "sector": [ "Transport", "Aviation", "Components" ], "description": "Traditionally, engines and airframe are designed separately with limited interaction or integration. The engines are normally mounted away from the fuselage and wings to minimize aerodynamic interference. Propulsion-airframe integration can leverage airflow interactions between engines and airframe to reduce drag and improve propulsive efficiency. \nThe most discussed concept in propulsion-airframe integration is \"Boundary layer ingestion\" (BLI). Air flowing over a surface forms a boundary layer of slow moving air close to the surface. At the rear end of the fuselage, this causes wake turbulence and low pressure regions, resulting ing drag. For an aircraft with BLI, some of the airframe boundary layer flows into the engine, which accelerates the slow air and reduces drag. This could improve fuel efficiency by 5-10%.\nOther propulsion-airframe integration concepts include distrubuted propulsion, embedded engines, and wing-propulsor synergy.", "supplyChain": [ "Other" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Future aircraft designs could leverage propulsion-airframe integration for additional efficiency gains.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ultra-high bypass ratio turbofan engine", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Ultra-high bypass ratio turbofan engine", "name": "Ultra-high bypass ratio turbofan engine", "sector": [ "Transport", "Aviation", "Components" ], "description": "The bypass ratio of a turbofan engine is the ratio between mass flow rate of the bypass stream (flowing through the fan but not entering compressor and turbine) to the mass flow entering the core. Bypass ratios of commercial turbofans have increased continuously over the last 50 years, contributing greatly to fuel efficiency imporvements of aircraft. Modern engines reach bypass ratios of up to 12:1. Ultra-high-bypass-ratio turbofan engines have even higher bypass ratios around 15:1 and up, promising further gains in efficiency. \nChallenges arise not only in the mechanical complexity of such engines, but also during the integration with airframes, due to the large fan diameters (3-4 m).\n", "supplyChain": [ "Other" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This new generation of engines could reduce energy consumption by up to 10% compared to current models and account for a significant part of efficiency gains of the next generation of planes.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Anaerobic digestion and upgrading with CCUS", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Anaerobic digestion and upgrading with CCUS", "name": "Anaerobic digestion and upgrading with CCUS", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Anaerobic digestion" ], "description": "Similar to biomethane production from anaerobic digestion, with the addition of a CO2 capture and compression unit integrated into the CO2 separation inherent to biogas upgrading. If the CO2 is stored, negative emissions are created that can offset hard-to-abate emissions elsewhere in the energy system. Larger digestors (> 5 MW) are suitable for carbon capture and storage (CCS) to justify the additional capital expense. See non-CCUS variant for more detail.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Bio-based fuels", "Biogases production" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Alternative methods for biomethane production exist (e.g. biomass gasification and methanation), and the future demand for biomethane is limited.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Anaerobic digestion and upgrading with CO2 venting", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Anaerobic digestion and upgrading with CO2 venting", "name": "Anaerobic digestion and upgrading with CO2 venting", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Anaerobic digestion" ], "description": "In an anaerobic digestor, bacteria break down to biomass without oxygen and in the process produce biogas, composed mostly of methane (50-75%) and carbon dioxide (25-45%). Biomass can be in the form of animal manure, organic portion of municipal solid waste (MSW), industrial waste such as dry distillers grain (DDG) from ethanol production, agricultural residues and energy crops. The biogas is upgraded by removing CO2 and other impurities such as hydrogen sulphide, producing what is commonly referred to as biomethane. Biomethane can be used directly or injected into the gas grid if it meets the required specifications. In some cases, biomethane needs to be mixed with LPG to increase its calorific potential before being injected.", "supplyChain": [ "Bio-based fuels", "Biogases production" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Alternative methods for biomethane production exist (e.g. biomass gasification and methanation), and the future demand for biomethane is limited.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Anaerobic digestion with biological methanation", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Anaerobic digestion with biological methanation", "name": "Anaerobic digestion with biological methanation", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Anaerobic digestion" ], "description": "Renewable hydrogen (from renewable-powered water electrolysis) is combined with raw biogas from anaerobic digestion to produce methane via biological conversion. Micro-organisms convert the CO2 in raw biogas and the H2 to biomethane via hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis, avoiding the need to vent or capture the CO2 in the biogas. The biological methanation can occur either within the anaerobic digester, or in a separation reactor. Biological methanation is more resilient to feed gas impurities.", "supplyChain": [ "Bio-based fuels", "Biogases production" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Though it’s a more effective use of biogenic carbon, alternative methods of biomethane production exist at higher TRL, and the demand for biomethane in the future is limited.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Anaerobic digestion with chemical methanation", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Anaerobic digestion with chemical methanation", "name": "Anaerobic digestion with chemical methanation", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Anaerobic digestion" ], "description": "Similar to biomethane production from anaerobic digestion, with the addition of a methanation step to further convert the carbon content in the biogas CO2 to methane rather than venting or capturing the CO2. The CO2 is reacted with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst. The benefit is a more effective use of biogenic carbon present in biogas, which can displace fossil-derived methane.", "supplyChain": [ "Bio-based fuels", "Biogases production" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Though it’s a more effective use of biogenic carbon, alternative methods of biomethane production exist at higher TRL, and the demand for biomethane in the future is limited.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Anaerobic digestion without biogas upgrading", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Anaerobic digestion without biogas upgrading", "name": "Anaerobic digestion without biogas upgrading", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Anaerobic digestion" ], "description": "In an anaerobic digestor, bacteria break down to biomass without oxygen and in the process produce biogas, composed mostly of methane (50-75%) and carbon dioxide (25-45%). Biomass can be in the form of animal manure, organic portion of municipal solid waste (MSW), industrial waste such as dry distillers grain (DDG) from ethanol production, agricultural residues, and energy crops. The biogas can be burned directly, without upgrading to biomethane.", "supplyChain": [ "Biogases production" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", null, null, null, null, "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Biogas is a low-quality fuel compared to biomethane, and therefore its demand is limited by its limited application.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Bioenergy with post-combustion CO2 capture", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Bioenergy with post-combustion CO2 capture", "name": "Bioenergy with post-combustion CO2 capture", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Thermochemical conversion", "Other" ], "description": "At a biomass-fired power plant with post-combustion capture using chemical absorption, the CO2 is separated from the combustion flue gas by using a chemical solvent (e.g. amine-based). The CO2 is released at high temperature and the solvent regenerated for further operation.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Power generation", "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Technology can provide negative emissions needed to offset remaining positive emissions in other parts of the energy system in order to reach net zero.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Bioenergy with pre-combustion CO2 capture", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Bioenergy with pre-combustion CO2 capture", "name": "Bioenergy with pre-combustion CO2 capture", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Thermochemical conversion", "Other" ], "description": "In an integrated gasification combined-cycle biomass power plant, biomass is gasified into a synthesis gas, consisting of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The synthesis gas is shifted in a water-gas-shift (WGS) reaction to produce additional hydrogen and convert the carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide. The CO2 is then captured from the shifted syngas using physical separation processes, such as adsorption, and afterward, the remaining hydrogen (H2) is combusted in a combined-cycle gas turbine that generates power.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Power generation", "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Technology can provide negative emissions (provided that the CO2 is permanently stored) needed to offset remaining positive emissions in other parts of the energy system in order to reach net zero.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Biomass gasification - small-scale (bio-syngas)", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Biomass gasification - small-scale (bio-syngas)", "name": "Biomass gasification - small-scale (bio-syngas)", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Thermochemical conversion", "Gasification to gaseous fuels" ], "description": "Biomass can be thermally converted to gaseous products via gasification. Biomass with a high lignocellulosic content (e.g. wood, straw, residues from forestry and agriculture, municipal solid waste) is heated, but not combusted, in an oxygen-restricted environment, producing a mixture of mostly hydrogen (H2) (20-30%), carbon monoxide (CO) (~20%), carbon dioxide (CO2) (~15%), and other hydrocarbons. Small-scale gasifiers (< 200 kWe) can provide fuel to create heat and electricity for remote villages. It can replace burning biomass directly for cooking in the home, avoiding negative health impacts.", "supplyChain": [ "Biogases production" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Alternative energy systems exist for powering rural communities, including solar and wind coupled with storage, connection to a national grid system.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Biomass gasification and biological methanation", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Biomass gasification and biological methanation", "name": "Biomass gasification and biological methanation", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Thermochemical conversion", "Gasification to gaseous fuels" ], "description": "Similar to the catalytic methanation route to produce bioSNG, biomass is first gasified into syngas, and then the CO, CO2 and H2 in the syngas are biologically converted into biomethane via the use of microbes.", "supplyChain": [ "Bio-based fuels", "Biogases production" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Alternative methods for biomethane production exist (e.g. anaerobic digestion and CO2 separation) at a higher TRL, and the future demand for biomethane is limited.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Biomass gasification and catalytic methanation", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Biomass gasification and catalytic methanation", "name": "Biomass gasification and catalytic methanation", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Thermochemical conversion", "Gasification to gaseous fuels" ], "description": "Often referred to as the bio-synthetic natural gas (bioSNG) route, biomass is first gasified into syngas and the syngas is then converted into biomethane via methanation. Biomass with a high lignocellulosic content (e.g. wood, straw, residues from forestry and agriculture, municipal solid waste) is gasified via heating in an oxygen-restricted environment, producing a mixture of mostly hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and other hydrocarbons. This \"syngas\" is then cleaned, CO2 is removed and vented, and the remaining syngas is dried before undergoing catalytic methanation. Prior to methanation, a partial water-gas shift (WGS) reaction may be used to adjust the H2\/CO ratio. Technical challenges revolve around tar buildup and removal during gasification.", "supplyChain": [ "Bio-based fuels", "Biogases production" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Alternative methods for biomethane production exist (e.g. anaerobic digestion and CO2 separation) at a higher TRL, and the future demand for biomethane is limited as sectors are increasingly electrified.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Biomass gasification and methanation with CCUS", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Biomass gasification and methanation with CCUS", "name": "Biomass gasification and methanation with CCUS", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Thermochemical conversion", "Gasification to gaseous fuels" ], "description": "Similar to the biomass gasification and catalytic methanation route (aka the bioSNG route), but with the addition of CO2 capture and compression following the CO2 removal step during syngas cleaning prior to methanation. Adding carbon capture and storage (CCS) is relatively easy given the pure stream of CO2 inherently produced in the process. Storing the CO2 rather than utilising it creates negative emissions that can offset hard-to-abate emissions elsewhere in the energy system. See non-CCUS variant for more detail.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Bio-based fuels", "Biogases production" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Alternative methods for biomethane production exist (e.g. anaerobic digestion and CO2 separation), and the future demand for biomethane is limited.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Biomass pyrolysis", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Biomass pyrolysis", "name": "Biomass pyrolysis", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Thermochemical conversion", "Other" ], "description": "In pyrolysis, biomass is heated in the absence of oxygen and decomposes into bio-oil and biochar. Fast pyrolysis (on the order of seconds) of dry biomass (up to 10% moisture content) is typically used to produce an output that is mostly bio-oil. Once produced, the pyrolysis bio-oil can then be refined to higher quality fuels such as diesel via standard petroleum refining units (fluid catalytic crackers, hydrocrackers). The bio-oil can be co-fed into refineries with crude fossil-based oil.", "supplyChain": [ "Bio-based fuels", "Liquid biofuels production" ], "trl": [ 5, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "There are alternative biofuels available at higher TRL.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ethanol \/ butanol-to-jet", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Ethanol \/ butanol-to-jet", "name": "Ethanol \/ butanol-to-jet", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Chemical upgrading & synthesis" ], "description": "This process integrates several individually well-known steps to convert an ethanol and isobutanol into a drop-in renewable diesel or jet fuel. The feedstock alcohol undergoes dehydration to remove water, oligomerisation to create longer chain hydrocarbons out of shorter chains, hydrogenation through the addition to hydrogen to convert the hydrocarbons into desired fuels, and finally distillation to separate the products into diesel, jet fuel and other streams. Alcohol-to-jet (ATJ) is a American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)-certified sustainable aviation fuel (SAF), allowed to be blended up to 50%.", "supplyChain": [ "Bio-based fuels", "Liquid biofuels production" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The demand for sustainable aviation fuels (SAF) in a net-zero world is large, and other alternatives to SAFs are expensive or technically infeasible (e.g. electrifying long-haul flights)", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Gasification and Fischer-Tropsch", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Gasification and Fischer-Tropsch", "name": "Gasification and Fischer-Tropsch", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Thermochemical conversion", "Gasification to liquid fuels" ], "description": "The biomass-based Fischer Tropsch pathway (bio-FT) is typically referred to as a biomass-to-liquid (BTL) route, though this umbrella term can apply to any route which produces liquid fuel from biomass. In the bio-FT route, biomass is first gasified into syngas and the syngas is then converted into hydrocarbon liquids via the Fischer-Tropsch process. Biomass with a high lignocellulosic content (e.g. wood, straw, residues from forestry and agriculture, municipal solid waste) is gasified via heating in an oxygen-restricted environment, producing a mixture of mostly hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and other hydrocarbons. This \"syngas\" is then sent to a water-gas shift (WGS) reactor to increase the H2\/CO ratio required for Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis, and CO2 is separated and vented. The syngas is fed into the FT reactor, and the resulting liquid hydrocarbons are cleaned, refined and separated into diesel, jet fuel, naphtha and other products. The biomass used to produce bio-FT are not food crops, avoiding direct competition with food and unwanted land-use change. Fuels resulting from bio-FT are \"drop-in\" and can therefore use existing fossil fuel infrastructure and technology without blending limits. Technical challenges revolve around tar buildup and removal during gasification. Bio-FT kerosene (biojet) is a American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)-certified sustainable aviation fuel (SAF), allowed to be blended up to 50%.", "supplyChain": [ "Bio-based fuels", "Liquid biofuels production" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The biomass feedstock used in the biomass-based Fischer Tropsch pathway (bio-FT) does not face the same land-use change and food competition concerns that plague other biofuels. Additionally, the bio-FT process produces a drop-in fuel that can completely replace fossil counterparts in the transport sector, allowing reuse of existing infrastructure.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Gasification and Fischer-Tropsch with CCUS", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Gasification and Fischer-Tropsch with CCUS", "name": "Gasification and Fischer-Tropsch with CCUS", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Thermochemical conversion", "Gasification to liquid fuels" ], "description": "The biomass-based Fischer Tropsch pathway (bio-FT) is typically referred to as a biomass-to-liquid (BTL) route, though this umbrella term can apply to any route which produces liquid fuel from biomass. In the bio-FT route, biomass is first gasified into syngas and the syngas is then converted into hydrocarbon liquids via the Fischer-Tropsch process. Biomass with a high lignocellulosic content (e.g. wood, straw, residues from forestry and agriculture, municipal solid waste) is gasified via heating in an oxygen-restricted environment, producing a mixture of mostly hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and other hydrocarbons. This \"syngas\" is then sent to a water-gas shift (WGS) reactor to increase the H2\/CO ratio required for Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis. In the CCUS variant, the CO2 is separated from the syngas prior to FT synthesis, resulting in a pure stream of CO2 that can be captured and compressed for utilisation or storage rather than vented. If stored, negative emissions are created. The resulting liquids from the FT reactor are further cleaned and separated into their hydrocarbon products (diesel, jet, naphtha, wax, etc). Technical challenges revolve around tar buildup and removal during gasification. The biomass used to produce bio-FT are not food crops, avoiding direct competition with food and unwanted land-use change. Fuels resulting from bio-FT are \"drop-in\" and can therefore use existing fossil fuel infrastructure and technology without blending limits. Technical challenges revolve around tar buildup and removal during gasification. Bio-FT kerosene (biojet) is a American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)-certified sustainable aviation fuel (SAF), allowed to be blended up to 50%.", "supplyChain": [ "Bio-based fuels", "Liquid biofuels production" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The biomass feedstock used in the biomass-based Fischer Tropsch pathway (bioFT) does not face the same land-use change and food competition concerns that plague other biofuels. Additionally, the bio-FT process produces a drop-in fuel that can completely replace fossil counterparts in the transport sector, allowing reuse of existing infrastructure. Adding carbon capture and storage (CCS) is relatively easy for bio-FT and provides negative emissions that can offset hard-to-abate emissions elsewhere in the energy system.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Gasification and Fischer-Tropsch with hydrogen enhancement", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Gasification and Fischer-Tropsch with hydrogen enhancement", "name": "Gasification and Fischer-Tropsch with hydrogen enhancement", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Thermochemical conversion", "Gasification to liquid fuels" ], "description": "The biomass-based Fischer Tropsch pathway (bio-FT) is typically referred to as a biomass-to-liquid (BTL) route, though this umbrella term can apply to any route which produces liquid fuel from biomass. In the bio-FT route with hydrogen enhancement, biomass is first gasified into syngas (mostly hydrogen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide). Instead of sending the syngas to a water-gas shift (WGS) reactor, as is done in the usual bio-FT route, low-carbon hydrogen is added to the syngas to drive a reverse water-gas shift (rWGS) reaction, converting hydrogen (H2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) into water and carbon monoxide (CO). Sufficient hydrogen is added to ensure a desired H2\/CO ratio for Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis. The liquids from the FT reactor are further cleaned and separated into their drop-in hydrocarbon products (diesel, jet, naphtha, etc). The benefit of adding hydrogen is a more efficient use of the carbon in biomass, as the carbon in CO2 is converted into hydrocarbon fuels rather than being either vented (bio-FT route) or captured and stored (bio-FT w\/ CCS route). Rather than providing negative emissions, the additionally converted carbon can displace fossil carbon within the energy system. Technical challenges revolve around tar buildup and removal during gasification. Bio-FT kerosene (biojet) is a American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)-certified sustainable aviation fuel (SAF), allowed to be blended up to 50%.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Bio-based fuels", "Liquid biofuels production" ], "trl": [ 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "While bio-FT without hydrogen is still a valuable biofuel for net zero, adding hydrogen would allow for a more efficient use of biogenic carbon within the biomass (though it would prevent carbon capture and storage (CCS) from providing negative emissions). However, the source of hydrogen must be low-emission.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydroprocessing of fermented sugars (HFS-SIP)", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Hydroprocessing of fermented sugars (HFS-SIP)", "name": "Hydroprocessing of fermented sugars (HFS-SIP)", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Fermentation" ], "description": "Direct Sugar to Hydrocarbon (DSHC), also known in aviation certification as Hydroprocessed Fermented Sugars to Synthetic Iso-Paraffins (HFS-SIP), converts biomass-derived sugars into renewable iso-paraffinic hydrocarbons. Sugars from crops or lignocellulosic biomass are fermented using engineered micro-organisms to produce farnesene, which is then recovered and hydroprocessed, mainly through hydrogenation and further upgrading such as hydrocracking, isomerisation and separation, to produce farnesane and related iso-paraffins. The process can yield renewable diesel-range fuels, specialty hydrocarbons and aviation-grade blend components. For aviation use, SIP\/farnesane is certified under ASTM D7566 Annex A3 as a synthetic iso-paraffinic jet fuel component, with a maximum blend ratio of 10% with conventional jet fuel.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels production", "Bio-based fuels", "Liquid biofuels production" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The demand for sustainable aviation fuels (SAF) in a net-zero world is large, and other alternatives to SAFs are expensive or technically infeasible (e.g. electrifying long-haul flights)", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrothermal liquefaction and upgrading of biomass", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Hydrothermal liquefaction and upgrading of biomass", "name": "Hydrothermal liquefaction and upgrading of biomass", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Thermochemical conversion", "Other" ], "description": "In hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) (also called catalytic hydrothermolysis, CHJ) , biomass decomposes into gases and bio-oil using water under high pressure (150 to 350 bar) and high temperature (250 - 450 °C), often in the presence of an alkali catalyst. A variety of biomass can be used and the biomass does not need to be dry, an advantage over pyrolysis and other thermochemical conversion processes. The bio-oil is separated from the gaseous and aqueous products, and can then be refined into high quality fuel such as diesel using typical petroleum refining processes. It can be co-fed with fossil-based oil into refineries. As this version of bio-oil has lower oxygen content than pyrolysis oil, it can be blended into heavy fuel oil for use in the shipping industry. HTL with upgrading is a American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)-certified sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) pathway, allowed to be blended up to 50%.", "supplyChain": [ "Bio-based fuels", "Liquid biofuels production" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "There are alternative biofuels available at higher TRL.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrotreating of oil\/fats to hydrogenated vegetable oil (HVO) or hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids (HEFA)", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Hydrotreating of oil\/fats to hydrogenated vegetable oil (HVO) or hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids (HEFA)", "name": "Hydrotreating of oil\/fats to hydrogenated vegetable oil (HVO) or hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids (HEFA)", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Chemical upgrading & synthesis" ], "description": "Hydrogenated vegetable oil (HVO) - also known as hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids (HEFA) - is a type of renewable diesel while HEFA is a type of drop-in biokerosene, meaning it is a drop-in fuel and theoretically has no upper blend limit with fossil diesel and kerosene, though it is currently capped at 50% blend for use in aviation. HVO is produced via well-known hydrotreatment commonly used at petroleum refineries. An oil feedstock (vegetable oil such a soybean, palm or rapeseed, or waste oils such as animal fats and used cooking oils) is reacted with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst to remove oxygen and break the triglycerides in the oil into three separate hydrocarbon chains. When compared to FAME biodiesel, HVO\/HEFA has better storage stability, cold flow properties and a higher cetane number (higher ignitibility). HVO\/HEFA kerosene\/jet fuel is an American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)-certified sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) pathway, allowed to be blended up to 50%.", "supplyChain": [ "Bio-based fuels", "Liquid biofuels production" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "There are sustainability limits to oilseed crop feedstock and inherent limitations to waste oil feedstock that limit the overall potential for growth.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Lignocellulosic biomass fermentation", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Lignocellulosic biomass fermentation", "name": "Lignocellulosic biomass fermentation", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Fermentation" ], "description": "Lignocellulosic ethanol via enzymatic fermentation is an advanced (second generation) biofuel where lignocellulosic biomass is broken down into sugars via enzymatic hydrolysis. From there, the fermentation process to produce ethanol is the same as conventional (first generation) ethanol production. Though more expensive than conventional ethanol, lignocellulosic ethanol uses a biomass feedstock that is considered residue and therefore does not have direct competition with food resources. Like conventional ethanol, its drawbacks are ethanol blend limits with gasoline (15% for use in gasoline engines, 85% for use in flex fuel vehicles, and 95% for use in compression ignition engines).", "supplyChain": [ "Bio-based fuels", "Liquid biofuels production" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Lignocellulosic ethanol without carbon capture and storage (CCS) is an important bridging biofuel, as it displaces sugar\/starch ethanol produced from unsustainable feedstock while allowing learning and development so that lignocellulosic ethanol with CCS can be deployed. However, other biofuels routes such as biomass-to-liquid (BtL) can use the same biomass feedstock but produce drop-in fuels with no upper blend limits. Additionally, a significant portion of road transport is electrified.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Lignocellulosic biomass fermentation with CO2 capture", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Lignocellulosic biomass fermentation with CO2 capture", "name": "Lignocellulosic biomass fermentation with CO2 capture", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Fermentation" ], "description": "During the fermentation step, a pure stream of CO2 is emitted that can be captured and compressed at relatively low cost due to the high purity of the stream. As the captured CO2 is biogenic, it can provide negative emissions if it is subsequently stored. This can help offset CO2 emissions in other parts of the energy system. See non-CCUS variant for more detail.", "supplyChain": [ "Bio-based fuels", "Liquid biofuels production" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Lignocellulosic ethanol with carbon capture and storage (CCS) provides both sustainable liquid fuel for transports and negative emissions. However, other biofuels routes such as biomass-to-liquid (BtL) can use the same biomass feedstock but produce drop-in fuels with no upper blend limits. Additionally, a significant portion of road transport is electrified.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Sugar\/starch fermentation", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Sugar\/starch fermentation", "name": "Sugar\/starch fermentation", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Fermentation" ], "description": "Bioethanol from sugar and starch crops is considered a conventional (first generation) biofuel. Carbohydrates (sugars) are enzymatically fermented into ethanol, producing a liquid biofuel that can be blended up to 15% with gasoline for any gasoline engine, and up to 85% for flex fuel vehicles, and 95% for dedicated (compression ignition) ethanol engines. However, in addition to challenges around blend limits, there are sustainability concerns with using food crops for ethanol production, which can lead to competition with food and undesirable land use change.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Bio-based fuels", "Liquid biofuels production" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", null, null, null, null, "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Conventional ethanol has been important to the development of the first biofuel supply chains, but without associated carbon capture and storage (CCS), and given its feedstock competition with food, it is expected to be completely phased out in the long term.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Sugar\/starch fermentation with CO2 capture", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Sugar\/starch fermentation with CO2 capture", "name": "Sugar\/starch fermentation with CO2 capture", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Fermentation" ], "description": "During the fermentation step, a pure stream of CO2 is emitted that can be captured and compressed at relatively low cost due to the high purity of the stream. As the captured CO2 is biogenic, it can provide negative emissions if it is subsequently stored. This can help offset CO2 emissions in other parts of the energy system. See non-CCUS variant for more detail.", "supplyChain": [ "Bio-based fuels", "Liquid biofuels production" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Conventional ethanol with the addition of carbon capture and storage still plays a role in a net zero world to help decarbonise transport while providing negative emissions. However, its role is limited by its use of agricultural crops that compete with food production.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Syngas fermentation", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Syngas fermentation", "name": "Syngas fermentation", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Fermentation" ], "description": "Syngas (a mixture of mostly hydrogen [H2], carbon monoxide [CO], and carbon dioxide [CO2]) is fermented to ethanol and other biofuels (e.g. butanol, acetic acid, etc.) using micro-organisms that function as bio-catalysts. Syngas can be produced via multiple routes, including gasification of biomass with high lignocellulosic content (e.g. wood, straw, residues from forestry and agriculture, municipal solid waste) and via heating in an oxygen-restricted environment. Syngas can also be produced using off-gases from industrial processes like iron and steel manufacturing. However, when using fossil-derived syngas, the emissions reductions potential tend to be lower than using renewable sources of syngas.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Bio-based fuels", "Liquid biofuels production" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Alternative routes at higher TRL exist to create ethanol, and ethanol coupled with CCS provides valuable negative emissions in the future.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Transesterification of oils and fats", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Transesterification of oils and fats", "name": "Transesterification of oils and fats", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Bioenergy", "Chemical upgrading & synthesis" ], "description": "Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) biodiesel is produced by reacting either vegetable oil (soybean, palm, rapeseed) or waste oils (animal fats, used cooking oils) with methanol in the presence of a catalyst. The transesterification reaction of the triglycerides found within the oils produces biodiesel and glycerine. The biodiesel and glycerine undergo a series of purification and separation steps to clean the final products and to recover the catalyst and any remaining methanol. Glycerine can be sold to the pharmaceutical industry. The biodiesel can be blended up to 5-7% with fossil diesel for use in road transport, or can be blended up to 100% for use in marine diesel engines.", "supplyChain": [ "Bio-based fuels", "Liquid biofuels production" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", null, null, null, null, "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Compared to fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) biodiesel's blending limit, there are other drop-in biofuels that can use existing infrastructure more efficiently. Additionally, there are sustainability limits to oilseed crop feedstock and inherent limitations to waste oil feedstock that limit the overall potential for growth.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Advanced admixtures and clinker micronisation", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Advanced admixtures and clinker micronisation", "name": "Advanced admixtures and clinker micronisation", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "The clinker factor of cement can be reduced through the use of proprietary admixtures and control of clinker size distribution (e.g. through micronisation).", "supplyChain": [ "Bio-based fuels", "Liquid biofuels production" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Advanced grinding technologies", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Advanced grinding technologies", "name": "Advanced grinding technologies", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "A range of more efficient raw material and fuel grinding technologies for cement production are under research and development. They include contact-free grinding systems, ultrasonic-comminution, high voltage power pulse fragmentation and low temperature comminution.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Advanced grinding technologies could decrease the electricity intensity of cement production beyond current best practice levels and provide means to manage electricity demand more flexibly. Related indirect CO2 reductions would be dependent on the CO2 intensity of different electricity grids: given that the grid will be moving towards increasingly lower CO2 emission to get on track with the NZE Scenario, the benefit is mostly in terms of reducing costs and pressure on the electricity system.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Alkali-activated binders (geopolymers)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Alkali-activated binders (geopolymers)", "name": "Alkali-activated binders (geopolymers)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "Alkali-activated binders are produced by the reaction of an alumino-silicate (the precursor) with an alkali activator. They rely on materials similar to those used in blended cement to reduce the clinker to cement ratio.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "The CO2 saving is highly variable - ranging from 10% to as high as 97% - and depends on the materials and processes to produce the alkali activators. Therefore, while some mixes and methods could provide considerable savings, others have much more limited potential. Furthermore, raw material availability may limit likely application in some regions, and it may be more efficient to use the raw materials in blended cements than for alkali-activated binders.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Calcined clay", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Calcined clay", "name": "Calcined clay", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "Calcined clay is an alternative cement constituent that can be used instead of clinker in blended cements, which can be produced in a variety of ways. However, the clay resources available in each region can be different, potentially requiring testing before uptake in each region.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Calcium looping carbon capture", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Calcium looping carbon capture", "name": "Calcium looping carbon capture", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "With carbon capture" ], "description": "Calcium looping is a technology that involves CO2 capture at high temperature using two main reactors. In the first reactor, lime (CaO) is used as a sorbent to capture CO2 from a gas stream to form calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The CaCO3 is subsequently transported to the second reactor where it is regenerated, resulting in lime (CaO) and a pure stream of CO2. The lime is then looped back to the first reactor. Nearly pure oxygen is typically used (oxyfuel combustion) to supply a large heat flow to the second reactor. A main benefit of calcium looping is potentially lower overall process energy consumption compared to other capture technologies. The technology is well suited for application to the flue gases from kilns, the main unit producing clinker for cement production.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "CO2 capture and storage is a key technology to reduce otherwise difficult to avoid process emissions from cement production. Most alternative CCS technologies are more costly and\/or at earlier stages of development, while other lower emission alternatives for producing cement, such as alternative binding materials, face challenges such as low TRL or limitations in raw material availability.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Carbonation of calcium silicates", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Carbonation of calcium silicates", "name": "Carbonation of calcium silicates", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "Cements based on carbonation of calcium silicates can sequester CO2 as they cure. Therefore, even if they are based on similar raw materials to PC clinker, these types of cement can yield zero process CO2 emissions in net terms, as the emissions would essentially be re-absorbed during the curing process. As alternative binding materials, they would have a different chemical composition to Ordinary Portland Cement.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Carbonation of calcium silicates reduces emissions from cement production by 30-40%, and further reduces emissions by sequestering CO2 as it cures, leading to about 70% reduction in emissions in net terms. However, its application will likely be limited to pre-cast applications since it requires a CO2-rich atmosphere for curing.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Chemical absorption (full capture rates)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Chemical absorption (full capture rates)", "name": "Chemical absorption (full capture rates)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "With carbon capture" ], "description": "Chemical absorption of CO2 is a common process operation based on the reaction between CO2 and a chemical solvent (e.g. amine-based). The CO2 is released at temperatures typically in the range 120 °C to 150 °C and the solvent is regenerated for further operation. It can be applied to kilns, the main unit producing clinker for cement production.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "CO2 capture and storage is a key technology to reduce otherwise difficult to avoid process emissions from cement production. Most alternative CCS technologies are more costly and\/or at earlier stages of development, while other lower emission alternatives for producing cement, such as alternative binding materials, face challenges such as low TRL or limitations in raw material availability.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Chemical absorption, partial capture rates (less than 50%)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Chemical absorption, partial capture rates (less than 50%)", "name": "Chemical absorption, partial capture rates (less than 50%)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "With carbon capture" ], "description": "Chemical absorption of CO2 is a common process operation based on the reaction between CO2 and a chemical solvent (e.g. amine-based). The CO2 is released at temperatures typically in the range 120 °C to 150 °C and the solvent is regenerated for further operation. It can be applied to kilns, the main unit producing clinker for cement production.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "CO2 capture and storage is a key technology to reduce otherwise difficult to avoid process emissions from cement production. Most alternative CCS technologies are more costly and\/or at earlier stages of development, while other lower emission alternatives for producing cement, such as alternative binding materials, face challenges such as low TRL or limitations in raw material availability. However, higher capture rates should be targeted.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Concrete recycling", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Concrete recycling", "name": "Concrete recycling", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "Recycling" ], "description": "Multiple processes have been developed for the recycling of concrete. Concrete fine recycling produces crushed concrete fines (grain size of 0 - 4 mm), which account for about 40% of recycled concrete. Calcium oxide (CaO) can be recovered from these fines and used in cement kilns to replace a portion of limestone (CaCO3) inputs, which reduces process emissions (by an estimated factor of three). It could also be used as a filler in blended cements. Meanwhile, crushing concrete into its constituent parts yields old cement powder which can be used first as a replacement for lime flux in steelmaking, and then as zero-emission clinker in cement making.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This technology could reduce process emissions from cement production. However, it would likely only be able to replace a relatively small portion of limestone used in cement production (given the long life of concrete infrastructure).", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Cryogenic carbon capture", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Cryogenic carbon capture", "name": "Cryogenic carbon capture", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "With carbon capture" ], "description": "Cryogenic capture is a refrigeration-based system of separating CO2.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ null, null, 4, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "While carbon capture remains central for emissions reductions from clinker production, there is competition between different carbon capture technologies, some of which have higher TRLs than this.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Direct heat from variable renewables (solar thermal)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Direct heat from variable renewables (solar thermal)", "name": "Direct heat from variable renewables (solar thermal)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "Shift in energy sources and electrification" ], "description": "A concentrated solar power (CSP) plant uses mirrors to concentrate solar radiation and convert it in high temperature heat. This can be used in different industrial processes that need high temperature, such as non-metallic particles treatment and clinker production.", "supplyChain": [ "Heat end use" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The technology has reasonable potential to replace fossil fuel use in various applications, and may prove technologically easier to apply than direct electrification of heat. However, it is still at a relatively early stage of development and would require considerable cost reductions to be competitive. Its application may be limited to areas with peak solar potential. Furthermore, replacing all process heat (as opposed to a part) with solar thermal will likely be challenging. Furthermore, it does not address process emission in cement production.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Direct separation carbon capture", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Direct separation carbon capture", "name": "Direct separation carbon capture", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "With carbon capture" ], "description": "Direct separation involves indirectly heating limestone for clinker production in a calciner using a special steel vessel. This enables pure CO2 from limestone (process emissions) to be captured as it is released, since fuel combustion emissions are kept separate.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "CO2 capture and storage is a key technology to reduce otherwise difficult to avoid process emissions from cement production. Chemical absorption and calcium looping are currently more advanced (given experience in the power sector in the case of chemical absorption). Direct separation has potential to play a role if further development and cost reductions are successful; given that it is targeted at process emissions, it would need to be applied in conjunction with another CCS technology if targeting full capture of plant emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Electrification (direct)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Electrification (direct)", "name": "Electrification (direct)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "Shift in energy sources and electrification" ], "description": "Kilns - the main unit producing clinker for cement production - require high temperature heat and typically run on fossil fuels. Exploration is underway to electrify the heating process, through technologies such as the plasma arc or resistance-based heating.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 4, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The TRL indicates that this option is at a lower phase of development, and it must be coupled with renewable electricity production in order to achieve considerable emission reductions. Considerable progress would be required to bring it to commercialisation and enable it to compete with alternatives. Furthermore, the technology would address energy but not process emissions from cement production.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Electrification (with thermal storage)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Electrification (with thermal storage)", "name": "Electrification (with thermal storage)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "Shift in energy sources and electrification" ], "description": "Kilns - the main unit producing clinker for cement production - require high temperature heat and typically run on fossil fuels. Exploration is underway to electrify the heating process, with some of these technologies also involving thermal energy storage to enable integration of variable renewables.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The TRL indicates that this option is at a lower phase of development, and it must be coupled with renewable electricity production in order to achieve considerable emission reductions. Considerable progress would be required to bring it to commercialisation and enable it to compete with alternatives. Furthermore, the technology would address energy but not process emissions from cement production.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Electrolyser-based process for decarbonating calcium carbonate prior to clinker production in the kiln", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Electrolyser-based process for decarbonating calcium carbonate prior to clinker production in the kiln", "name": "Electrolyser-based process for decarbonating calcium carbonate prior to clinker production in the kiln", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "Calcination of limestone, in which calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is converted to calcium oxide (CaO) and carbon dioxide (CO2), is a key process of cement production that takes place in a kiln. A process is under development to instead electrochemically convert calcium carbonate into calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) in an electrolyser, producing a concentrated CO2\/O2 steam (to which CO2 capture could be applied) and hydrogen (that could be used in subsequent stages of production). The calcium hydroxide can then be converted to calcium silicates needed for cement in a kiln.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The TRL indicates that this option is at a lower phase of development, and it must be coupled with renewable electricity production in order to achieve considerable emissions reduction. Considerable progress would be required to bring it to commercialisation and enable it to compete with alternatives. However, it could enable electrification of cement production while also allowing for easier CO2 capture due to the concentrated CO2\/O2 stream.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Magnesium oxides derived from magnesium silicates", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Magnesium oxides derived from magnesium silicates", "name": "Magnesium oxides derived from magnesium silicates", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "Cements based on magnesium oxides derived from magnesium silicates (MOMS) are, in principle, able to counterbalance or even absorb more CO2 than the amount released in the manufacturing process while curing (i.e. yielding net negative CO2 emissions). This characteristic would only have a true environmental advantage if the magnesium oxides are provided from natural magnesium sources free of carbon, such as magnesium silicate rocks, in contrast to magnesium carbonate.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "MOMS can, in principle, counterbalance or even absorb more CO2 than the amount released in the manufacturing process while curing, if magnesium oxides are provided from natural magnesium sources free of carbon. However, it is still at an early stage of development and would require considerable improvements to compete with alternative low-emission cement options.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Membrane separation carbon capture", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Membrane separation carbon capture", "name": "Membrane separation carbon capture", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "With carbon capture" ], "description": "Membrane separation uses a semi-selective membrane (a polymeric membrane that allows some gases to pass through but not others) to concentrate CO2 on one side of the membrane, thus separating it from a stream. It can be applied to kilns, the main unit producing clinker for cement production.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "CO2 capture and storage is a key technology to reduce otherwise difficult to avoid process emissions from cement production. However, multiple other CCS technologies are further advanced for application in the cement sector compared to membrane separation.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Novel physical adsorption carbon capture (silica or organic-based)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Novel physical adsorption carbon capture (silica or organic-based)", "name": "Novel physical adsorption carbon capture (silica or organic-based)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "With carbon capture" ], "description": "This technology involves a new structured adsorbent, which has a large surface area and can catch and release CO2 at very rapid rates (60 seconds, compared to hours for other technologies). The adsorbents are made from new classes of materials such as functionalised-silica or metal-organic frameworks. Among its various applications, it can be applied to kilns, the main unit producing clinker for cement production.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "CO2 capture and storage is a key technology to reduce otherwise difficult to avoid process emissions from cement production. Chemical absorption and calcium looping are currently more advanced (given experience in the power sector in the case of chemical absorption); however, novel physical adsorption technologies have potential to play a role if further development and cost reductions are successful.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ordinary portland cement from non-carbonate calcium sources", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Ordinary portland cement from non-carbonate calcium sources", "name": "Ordinary portland cement from non-carbonate calcium sources", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "Ordinary Portland Cement from non-carbonate calcium sources such as calcium silicate rocks (e.g. basalt), recycled cement, mine tailings or other calcium containing industry waste results in no process emissions. It can also co-produce supplementary cementitious materials that improve the economics of the process, can be produced in a way that enables greater shares of renewable energy in the production, can produce waste products that sequester CO2 and thus yield negative emissions. Since these processes achieve the same chemical composition as Ordinary Portland Cement, there are no limitations to the applications for which they can be used and they do not face major regulatory barriers to adoption.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, 3, 4, 4, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Oxy-fuelling and carbon capture", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Oxy-fuelling and carbon capture", "name": "Oxy-fuelling and carbon capture", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "With carbon capture" ], "description": "Oxyfuel CO2 capture involves combusting a fuel using nearly pure oxygen instead of air. The flue gas will be composed of CO2 and water vapour, which can be dehydrated to obtain a high-purity CO2 stream. Oxygen is commonly produced by separating oxygen from air in an air separation unit. Advanced concepts with potential for cost reduction include oxyfuel gas turbines and pressurised oxyfuel CO2 capture, which require fewer materials and are potentially cheaper to operate. The technology can be applied to kilns, the main unit producing clinker for cement production.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "CO2 capture and storage is a key technology to reduce otherwise difficult to avoid process emissions from cement production. Chemical absorption and calcium looping are currently more advanced than oxyfuelling (given experience in the power sector in the case of chemical absorption); however, oxyfuelling has potential to play a role if further development and cost reductions are successful.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Partial use of hydrogen", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Partial use of hydrogen", "name": "Partial use of hydrogen", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "Shift in energy sources and electrification" ], "description": "Kilns - the main unit producing clinker for cement production - require high temperature heat and typically run on fossil fuels. Exploration is underway to replace a portion of the fossil fuels with hydrogen; the properties of hydrogen are such that it is not expected it could fully replace fossil fuel requirements.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use" ], "trl": [ 4, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The TRL indicates that this option is at a lower phase of development, and hydrogen production would need to be coupled with renewable electricity production or CCS in order to achieve emissions reduction. Considerable progress would be required to bring it to commercialisation and enable it to compete with alternatives. Furthermore, the technology would address energy but not process emissions from cement production.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Pozzolans", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Pozzolans", "name": "Pozzolans", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "Traditionally, industrial by-products such as coal fly ash have been used as pozzolans to reduce the amount of clinker in cement making, but the decarbonisation of the power sector will likely lead to a reduction in the amount of fly ash available. Absent other supplementary cementitious materials, the clinker-to-cement ratio will need to increase, and emissions with it. Alternatives to traditional supplementary cementitious materials can be developed to avoid a rise in emissions from clinker.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "High abatement potential.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Raw clay", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Raw clay", "name": "Raw clay", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "An alternative concrete formula has been developed using raw clay as a binding agent, along with an activator and a precursor.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, 6, 7, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "High abatement potential for using raw clay, due to limited energy use and emissions from processing.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Unhydrated cement recycling", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Unhydrated cement recycling", "name": "Unhydrated cement recycling", "sector": [ "Industry", "Cement and concrete", "Recycling" ], "description": "In the process of concrete curing, some portion of cement does not come in contact with water and is left unhydrated (some estimates suggest that up to 50% of cement could remain unhydrated). New concrete crushing technologies are under development that would enable recovering this unhydrated cement from end-of-life concrete for direct reuse as new cement.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "This technology could reduce the need for new cement production. However, there may be behavioural barriers to its widespread use, and given the long lifetimes of concrete structures it is unlikely to come close to replacing a large portion of cement demand. It is also unclear what portion of unhydrated cement it is possible to recover from concrete.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Bio-electrochemical ammonia production", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Bio-electrochemical ammonia production", "name": "Bio-electrochemical ammonia production", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Ammonia", "Biological" ], "description": "Bio-electrochemical ammonia production refers to processes in which microorganisms convert nitrogen-containing compounds into ammonia using electrons supplied directly from an electrode. These microorganisms use the enzyme nitrogenase, which catalyses the conversion of molecular nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3), a reaction known as nitrogen fixation. As the bond between the two nitrogen atoms in molecular nitrogen is a strong triple bond, nitrogen fixation requires the input of multiple electrons and protons, as well as significant energy to activate and drive the reaction. In conventional biological nitrogen fixation, this energy is supplied through the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) during electron transfer from the Fe-protein to the catalytic MoFe-protein that together constitute the nitrogenase enzyme, with two ATP molecules consumed for each electron delivered. In the process commonly referred to as nitrogenase bio-electrocatalysis, the ATP-dependent electron-delivery cycle is instead bypassed by providing an external electrical current. This approach can enhance the rate of nitrogen reduction and reduce the biochemical energy requirement compared to the natural, ATP-driven process. If the electrical current is supplied by renewable sources, ammonia can be produced avoid CO2 emissions.\nThe technology is currently at an early stage of development. The main challenges for its development regard catalyst stability, as enzymes typically lose activity after only a few days of operation, and the rate of ammonia synthesis, which is significantly lower than industrial requirements.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Ammonia" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Bio-electrochemical ammonia production is less mature than other low-emission ammonia production technologies. However, it is of interest because, compared to the Haber-Bosch process, it enables operation under mild conditions and does not rely on fossil feedstocks or externally supplied hydrogen, thus potentially reducing the energy consumption and cost of ammonia synthesis. In addition, the process can be completely decentralised, adapting to the distributed nature of renewable energy sources and reducing transport-related emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Biological nitrogen fixation", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Biological nitrogen fixation", "name": "Biological nitrogen fixation", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Ammonia", "Biological" ], "description": "Biological nitrogen fixation is a naturally occurring biochemical process through which atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is converted into ammonia (NH3). This reaction is catalysed by the enzyme nitrogenase, which is expressed by specialised nitrogen-fixing microorganisms. These include various bacteria (e.g., Rhizobium, Azotobacter, and Klebsiella), blue-green algae, and water ferns. \nThe technology has currently been tested at the laboratory scale. While engineered microbes supplying nitrogen to plants have recently reached the market, there are currently no commercial products that produce ammonia. Research efforts are currently focused on engineering microorganisms able to express nitrogenase more efficiently. These engineered microbes can function as biological reactors, achieving ammonia production rates and yields that exceed those of naturally occurring nitrogen-fixing organisms. Alternative approaches are being explored based on enzyme-based or cell-free nitrogenase systems, which consist of using purified or immobilised nitrogenase enzymes to convert nitrogen into ammonia outside of living cells. By decoupling ammonia synthesis from cellular metabolism, these systems enable operation under controlled conditions.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Ammonia" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Biological nitrogen fixation is less mature than other low-emission ammonia production technologies. However, it is of interest because, compared to the Haber-Bosch process, it enables operation under mild conditions and does not rely on fossil feedstocks or externally supplied hydrogen, thus potentially reducing the energy consumption and cost of ammonia synthesis. In addition, the process can be decentralised, reducing transport-related emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Chemical looping (ammonia production)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Chemical looping (ammonia production)", "name": "Chemical looping (ammonia production)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Ammonia", "Alternative routes" ], "description": "Chemical looping ammonia synthesis is an alternative to the traditional Haber-Bosch process and consists of splitting the ammonia production reaction into multiple sub-reactions performed in separate steps and reactors. This approach enables flexible operation and optimisation of the conditions of each sub-reaction, minimising competitive unwanted reactions such as the adsorption of N2 and H2 that limit the performance of the Haber–Bosch process. As a result, ammonia can be produced under milder temperatures and pressures. Chemical looping ammonia synthesis is generally divided into two steps, mediated by a carrier material, which is typically a metal catalyst. In the first step, nitrogen is fixed to the metal catalyst, forming a bulk metal nitride or metal imide, which then reacts with hydrogen or water to release ammonia in the second step.\nTo date, the technology has been proven at the laboratory scale. The main bottleneck for development lies in the development of advanced catalyst materials capable of sufficiently fast kinetics at low temperatures, as the catalyst is the key component of the process, acting as the intermediate for energy and nitrogen transport between reactors.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Ammonia" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Chemical looping ammonia synthesis is being explored as an alternative to the conventional Haber-Bosch process, as it enables operation at lower temperatures and near-atmospheric pressure, potentially reducing the energy consumption and cost of ammonia production. However, the technology remains at a pre-commercial stage.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "CO2-to-methanol via reverse water-gas shift", "breadcrumb": "Industry > CO2-to-methanol via reverse water-gas shift", "name": "CO2-to-methanol via reverse water-gas shift", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Methanol" ], "description": "This pathway produces methanol from carbon dioxide through a two-step process. In the first step, CO2 is partially converted to carbon monoxide via the reverse water-gas shift reaction. In the second step, the resulting synthesis gas, adjusted with additional hydrogen, is converted into methanol through catalytic synthesis.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "CO2 utilisation", "Methanol and ethanol" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This production route could reduce fossil fuel–related emissions associated with today’s methanol production, provided that the CO2 comes from sustainable biogenic sources, direct air capture, or unavoidable industrial emissions, and that the hydrogen used is produced from low-emissions sources.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Direct CO2-to-methanol synthesis", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Direct CO2-to-methanol synthesis", "name": "Direct CO2-to-methanol synthesis", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Methanol" ], "description": "This technology pathway produces methanol through the direct catalytic hydrogenation of carbon dioxide, using hydrogen. CO2 and hydrogen react in a single process step to form methanol, avoiding the intermediate production of synthesis gas and enabling a more integrated conversion route.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "CO2 utilisation", "Methanol and ethanol" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This production route could reduce fossil fuel–related emissions associated with today’s methanol production, provided that the CO2 comes from sustainable biogenic sources, direct air capture or unavoidable industrial emissions, and that the hydrogen used is produced from low-emissions sources.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Direct electrochemical nitrogen reduction", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Direct electrochemical nitrogen reduction", "name": "Direct electrochemical nitrogen reduction", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Ammonia", "Alternative routes" ], "description": "Direct electrochemical nitrogen reduction is an electrically driven process that converts water and atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia. This approach enables carbon-neutral ammonia production in if the electricity is supplied from renewable sources. The process takes place in an electrochemical cell. At the cathode, ammonia is formed via the nitrogen reduction reaction (NRR), while oxygen is produced at the anode through the oxygen evolution reaction from water, supplying the protons (H+) required for NRR. In the presence of a suitable catalyst, nitrogen reduction can occur under mild operating conditions.\nThe technology has been demonstrated at laboratory scale, with prototypes achieving production rates on the order of kilograms per day. A key challenge of this process is suppressing the competing hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), which reduces protons to form hydrogen gas (H2) instead of ammonia and occurs at a theoretical electrochemical potential similar to that of NRR . Current research primarily focuses on the development of advanced catalysts to improve the process selectivity and efficiency, reducing the occurrence of unwanted competing reactions.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels production", "Ammonia" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, 4, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Direct electrochemical nitrogen reduction is less mature than other low-emission ammonia production technologies. However, it is of interest because, compared to the Haber-Bosch process, it enables operation under mild conditions and does not rely on fossil feedstocks or externally supplied hydrogen, thus potentially reducing the energy consumption and cost of ammonia synthesis. In addition, the process can be completely decentralised, adapting to the distributed nature of renewable energy sources and reducing transport-related emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ethylene production using fermentation", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Ethylene production using fermentation", "name": "Ethylene production using fermentation", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Ethylene" ], "description": "Ethylene (C2H4) can be produced from bio-ethanol (C2H6O) via dehydration processes. The bio-ethanol could be produced from sugary biomass (e.g. sugarcane) by fermentation or from starchy biomass (e.g. corn) by hydrolysis followed by fermentation (first generation biofuel production technologies).", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "This production route would avoid the direct use of fossil fuels in ethylene production from the widely established fossil-feedstock based steam crackers. It is already used commercially today, and makes use of lower cost biomass that is less thermally intensive to process compared to biomass that would be required to produce other chemicals like ammonia and methanol. However, this technology may face difficulty in competing with alternatives, given limited availability of sustainable biomass and competition with other end uses.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ethylene production using lignocellulosic gasification", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Ethylene production using lignocellulosic gasification", "name": "Ethylene production using lignocellulosic gasification", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Ethylene" ], "description": "Ethylene (C2H4) can be produced from bio-ethanol (C2H6O) via dehydration processes. The bio-ethanol could be produced from lignocellulosic biomass (e.g. woody crops, agricultural residues) through gasification to produce a syngas and subsequent conversion into ethanol by fermentation or catalytic conversion.", "supplyChain": [ "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This production route would avoid the direct use of fossil fuels in ethylene production from the widely established fossil-feedstock based steam crackers. Further development of technologies and cost reductions for converting lignocellulosic biomass to bioethanol would be needed to make this route an option for bioethylene production, but would have the advantage of more readily available biomass feedstock. This technology may face difficulty in competing with alternatives, given limited availability of sustainable biomass and competition with other end uses.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Haber-bosch process using electrolytic hydrogen", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Haber-bosch process using electrolytic hydrogen", "name": "Haber-bosch process using electrolytic hydrogen", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Ammonia", "Thermocatalytic" ], "description": "Ammonia production involves combining nitrogen with hydrogen via the Haber–Bosch process. In conventional plants, hydrogen is produced through steam methane reforming of natural gas, which is associated with significant CO2 emissions. In contrast, in Haber–Bosch systems using electrolytic hydrogen, hydrogen is generated by water electrolysis powered by renewable electricity. This substitution enables ammonia production with zero direct CO2 emissions. For this reason, the technology has attracted considerable interest, with numerous projects under development worldwide. The largest projects currently in operation have reached production scales of hundreds of thousands of tonnes of ammonia per year.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels production", "Ammonia" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This production route could avoid the generation of CO2 emissions associated with today's ammonia production, provided that renewable electricity is used to power electrolysis.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Haber-bosch process using hydrogen produced with full CCUS", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Haber-bosch process using hydrogen produced with full CCUS", "name": "Haber-bosch process using hydrogen produced with full CCUS", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Ammonia", "Thermocatalytic" ], "description": "CO2 produced during the ammonia production process may be captured at different rates and by different means. In this configuration, both concentrated and diluted streams from the hydrogen production process are captured, resulting in high capture rates (> 90% of process emissions). Capture on concentrated streams is typically carried out by physical absorption (using liquid solvents like Selexol or Rectisol to absorb CO2 from high-pressure gas streams without a chemical reaction), physical adsorption (capturing CO2 on the surface of the adsorbents, with desorption achieved through pressure swing adsorption, vacuum swing adsorption, or a hybrid configuration called vacuum pressure swing adsorption), or cryogenic capture (refrigeration-based system of separating CO2). Capture on more diluted streams typically requires other forms of capture including chemical absorption (CO2 reacting with a chemical solvent such as amines, and is subsequently released at 120°C - 150°C during solvent regeneration), or using auto-thermal reforming technology.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Ammonia" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Applying CO2 capture technologies to ammonia production offers an opportunity to reduce emissions, with physical absorption already commercially applied and generally less costly. Chemical absorption could enable capture of a higher proportion of plant emissions, including from smaller process units, though its deployment may be less crucial where physical absorption is already used. Physical adsorption and cryogenic capture are currently less technically suited or less mature for ammonia production.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Haber-bosch process using hydrogen produced with partial CCUS", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Haber-bosch process using hydrogen produced with partial CCUS", "name": "Haber-bosch process using hydrogen produced with partial CCUS", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Ammonia", "Thermocatalytic" ], "description": "CO2 produced during ammonia production may be captured at different rates and by different means. In this configuration, only concentrated emissions from the hydrogen production process are captured, resulting in partial capture. This process is widely deployed commercially in SMR-based hydrogen production, capturing concentrated CO2 for utilisation, often for urea or storing captured CO2 via enhanced oil recovery (TRL 9C). Capture on concentrated streams is typically carried out by physical absorption (using liquid solvents like Selexol or Rectisol to absorb CO2 from high-pressure gas streams without a chemical reaction), or physical adsorption (capturing CO2 on the surface of the adsorbents, with desorption achieved through pressure swing adsorption, vacuum swing adsorption, or a hybrid configuration called vacuum pressure swing adsorption). ", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Ammonia" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Applying CO2 capture technologies to ammonia production offers an opportunity to reduce emissions, with physical absorption already commercially applied and generally less costly. Chemical absorption could enable capture of a higher proportion of plant emissions, including from smaller process units, though its deployment may be less crucial where physical absorption is already used. Physical adsorption and cryogenic capture are currently less technically suited or less mature for ammonia production.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "High value chemicals production using chemical absorption", "breadcrumb": "Industry > High value chemicals production using chemical absorption", "name": "High value chemicals production using chemical absorption", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "High value chemicals" ], "description": "Chemical absorption of CO2 is a common process operation based on the reaction between CO2 and a chemical solvent (e.g. amine-based). The CO2 is released at temperatures typically in the range 120 °C - 150 °C and the solvent is regenerated for further operation.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "CCS has good potential to reduce emissions from high value chemicals (HVCs) production at a reasonable cost. It is a key competitor for emission reductions for HVCs.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "High value chemicals production using gas fermentation-to-ethanol-to-ethylene", "breadcrumb": "Industry > High value chemicals production using gas fermentation-to-ethanol-to-ethylene", "name": "High value chemicals production using gas fermentation-to-ethanol-to-ethylene", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "High value chemicals" ], "description": "In this process, CO2 is captured from ethylene steam craker and converted to ethanol, and then converted into ethylene.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This can be a way to reduce or reuse CO2, however if the ethylene does not go into durable products with long term carbon storage it does not lead to full abatement of emissions,", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "High value chemicals production using naphtha catalytic cracking", "breadcrumb": "Industry > High value chemicals production using naphtha catalytic cracking", "name": "High value chemicals production using naphtha catalytic cracking", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "High value chemicals" ], "description": "Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) is the second largest source of propylene, which is essentially a by-product of refinery gasoline production. While the usual feed to an FCC unit is heavy hydrocarbons, the use of naphtha as feedstock improves the yield of the process and increases the capability to control the composition of olefins.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "This technology can help improve the efficiency of chemicals production. However, it does not lead to near-zero emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "High value chemicals production using physical absorption", "breadcrumb": "Industry > High value chemicals production using physical absorption", "name": "High value chemicals production using physical absorption", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "High value chemicals" ], "description": "Physical absorption uses a liquid solvent to absorb CO2 from flue gases that have high CO2 partial pressures, without a chemical reaction occurring. Common physical solvents include Selexol (dimethyl ethers of polyethylene glycol) and Rectisol (methanol).", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "CCS has good potential to reduce emissions from high value chemicals (HVCs) production at a reasonable cost. It is a key competitor for emission reductions for HVCs.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "High value chemicals production using steam cracker electrification", "breadcrumb": "Industry > High value chemicals production using steam cracker electrification", "name": "High value chemicals production using steam cracker electrification", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "High value chemicals" ], "description": "Steam cracking is a process in which long-chain hydrocarbons are broken into simpler ones, for example splitting naphtha into olefins and aromatics for further processing. Due to high temperature requirements, steam crackers are currently fossil fuel-fired. However, exploration is underway to run steam crackers on electricity.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The viability of this technology is partly tied to the price of electricity, which will likely be in high demand in a low carbon world. However, this option is being pursued heavily by large scale producers.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Lignin-based (biomass) benzene, toluene and xylenes production", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Lignin-based (biomass) benzene, toluene and xylenes production", "name": "Lignin-based (biomass) benzene, toluene and xylenes production", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Benzene, toluene and xylenes" ], "description": "BTX aromatics can be produced from lignin via several different routes, including cracking of de-oxygenated lignin, catalytic conversion, production from sugars (by the Diels-Alder reaction), or a hydrolysis plus nanofiltration or pervaporation process.", "supplyChain": [ "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This production route would avoid the direct use of fossil fuels in aromatics production. However, availability of sustainable biomass may put an upper limit on the potential for this process route. It is also capital and energy intensive, and the use of biomass - a high-cost commodity - makes it more expensive than competing options (such as CCS).", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Low pressure haber-bosch process", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Low pressure haber-bosch process", "name": "Low pressure haber-bosch process", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Ammonia", "Thermocatalytic" ], "description": "The standard Haber-Bosch process synthesises ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen at high temperature (400-550 °C) and pressure (150-350 bar) using an iron-based catalyst. As a result, ammonia synthesis is highly complex and energy intensive. The process also requires substantial capital investment due to these harsh reaction conditions, which typically leads to centralised production. Low-pressure Haber–Bosch refers to ammonia synthesis processes that retain the fundamental chemistry of the conventional process but operate at significantly reduced pressures. These approaches rely on innovations in catalyst design (such as electryde catalysts) and absorption techniques, achieving pressures of 10–30 bar. Operating under these conditions could make small-scale ammonia production feasible, opening the door to dispatch production closer to affordable electricity generation or near fertiliser-hungry agricultural regions.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels production", "Ammonia" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Low-pressure Haber–Bosch reduces the energy consumption of ammonia production and enables the design of small-scale, modular plants. This could unlock distributed production that is better adapted to the distributed nature of renewable energy sources and reduces transport-related emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Methanol production using biomass and waste gasification", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Methanol production using biomass and waste gasification", "name": "Methanol production using biomass and waste gasification", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Methanol" ], "description": "Biomass can replace fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas and coal as a feedstock for methanol production. In this pathway, biomass is converted into synthesis gas (syngas), which is then conditioned and catalytically converted into methanol.", "supplyChain": [ "Methanol and ethanol", "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This production route avoids the use of fossil fuels in methanol production. However, the availability of sustainable biomass may limit the scale and overall deployment potential of this pathway.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Methanol production with CO2 capture (high rates)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Methanol production with CO2 capture (high rates)", "name": "Methanol production with CO2 capture (high rates)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Methanol" ], "description": "In natural gas steam methane reforming (SMR) and coal gasification–based methanol production, fossil CO2 emissions arise both from syngas production upstream of methanol synthesis and from fuel combustion used to supply process heat. In high-capture configurations, some CO2 is captured from concentrated process streams generated during syngas production and from combustion exhaust gases from furnaces supplying process heat, enabling overall capture rates typically above 90% of emissions. Capture from concentrated streams can rely on commercially mature technologies widely applied in chemical production, including physical absorption, physical adsorption and cryogenic separation. Achieving high capture rates additionally requires capture from dilute combustion exhaust streams, most commonly using chemical absorption systems or integrated reforming configurations. Compared with partial capture options, this pathway enables substantially larger emissions reductions, but implies higher energy use and costs.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Methanol and ethanol" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "High CO2 capture rate configurations can be applied to new or existing natural gas and coal-based methanol plants to reduce on-site fossil CO2 emissions by capturing process-related and combustion emissions. Although emissions associated with the supply of fossil fuels are not prevented, this approach can significantly reduce the carbon intensity of producing methanol using fossil fuels.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Methanol production with CO2 capture (low rates)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Methanol production with CO2 capture (low rates)", "name": "Methanol production with CO2 capture (low rates)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Methanol" ], "description": "In natural gas steam methane reforming (SMR) and coal gasification–based methanol production, fossil CO2 emissions arise both from syngas production and from fuel combustion used to supply process heat. Partial capture configurations typically target concentrated CO2 streams generated during syngas production, where some CO2 may be separated from the syngas feed to the methanol synthesis process. Capture from such concentrated streams is technically mature and widely deployed in other chemical production processes, including urea manufacturing.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Methanol and ethanol" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Partial CO2 capture can be applied to existing natural gas and coal-based methanol facilities, enabling a reduction in fossil CO2 emissions without requiring a full redesign of the production process. While this approach does not address all emission sources, it can deliver near-term emission reductions and serve as a transitional step towards higher capture rates or low-emissions methanol production pathways.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Methanol-based benzene, toluene and xylenes production", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Methanol-based benzene, toluene and xylenes production", "name": "Methanol-based benzene, toluene and xylenes production", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Benzene, toluene and xylenes" ], "description": "Aromatics such as benzene, toluene and xylenes (BTX) can be produced from methanol via a catalytic conversion process.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels use" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "If building on low-emission methanol, this process route would open a new avenue to displace fossil feedstock for aromatics production in conventional naphtha steam crackers. However, it requires a large amount of methanol per tonne of aromatics, which makes it expensive, and quantities of aromatics are still available from refineries and steam crackers so there is not a pressing need for an alternative source.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Photocatalytic\/photoelectrochemical nitrogen reduction", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Photocatalytic\/photoelectrochemical nitrogen reduction", "name": "Photocatalytic\/photoelectrochemical nitrogen reduction", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Ammonia", "Alternative routes" ], "description": "Photocatalytic nitrogen reduction is a solar‑driven processes that convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3) under ambient conditions, using catalysts activated by light. This approach uses semiconductor materials that absorb solar radiation to generate electron-hole pairs, with holes facilitating the oxidation reaction of water and electrons acting as reductive species for nitrogen.\nPhotoelectrochemical nitrogen reduction exploits the same principles, with the additional application of an external electric field to facilitate electron transfer, enabling significantly higher ammonia yields. In this process, the catalysts are located at the semiconductor photocathode, where the reduction of nitrogen occurs, while water splitting takes place at a counter electrode at the anode of the reactor cell.\nPhotocatalytic and photoelectrochemical nitrogen reduction technologies are still at the laboratory scale. The development of novel catalysts remains the primary research challenge, as most available catalysts have lower ammonia production rates than industrial requirements, and their long-term operation is prone to performance degradation due to photocorrosion, carbon accumulation, or metal agglomeration.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Ammonia" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Photocatalytic and photoelectrochemical nitrogen reduction technologies are attracting interest because, compared to the Haber-Bosch process, they enable operation under mild conditions, thus potentially reducing the energy consumption and cost of ammonia synthesis. In addition, these processes can be completely decentralised, reducing transport-related emissions. However, substantial technological development is required to reach commercial maturity.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Plasma air-to-ammonia synthesis", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Plasma air-to-ammonia synthesis", "name": "Plasma air-to-ammonia synthesis", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Ammonia", "Alternative routes" ], "description": "Plasma air-to-ammonia synthesis involves the use of electric energy to generate a nitrogen-hydrogen plasma that excites nitrogen and oxygen molecules in air, leading to ammonia formation upon contact with water in the presence of a catalyst. This technology enables ammonia synthesis at low temperatures and pressures and can avoid CO2 if powered by renewable electricity. As a result, this method could theoretically achieve higher efficiency than the traditional Haber-Bosch process. To date, the technology has been demonstrated only at laboratory scale, achieving acceptable ammonia yields, although overall energy efficiencies remain low. Current research focuses on the development of advanced catalysts and reactor designs to enhance nitrogen fixation and suppress back reactions.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels production", "Ammonia" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Plasma air-to-ammonia synthesis is less mature than other low-emission ammonia production technologies. However, it is of interest because, compared to the Haber-Bosch process, it enables operation under mild conditions and does not rely on fossil feedstocks or externally supplied hydrogen, thus potentially reducing the energy consumption and cost of ammonia synthesis. In addition, the process can be completely decentralised, adapting to the distributed nature of renewable energy sources and reducing transport-related emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Pyrolysis recycling", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Pyrolysis recycling", "name": "Pyrolysis recycling", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Recycling" ], "description": "Pyrolysis is the breakdown of material at high temperatures in the absence of oxygen. Pyrolysis can be used to convert mixed plastic waste into liquid hydrocarbons, which can be used again by the petrochemical industry.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Improved recycling would help reduce the need for virgin production and can reduce downcycling in which a material is recycled into a lower value end. However, behavioural barriers also need to be overcome to increase plastics collection rates, and secondary production is unlikely to ever fully replace the need for primary production.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Recycling via chemical depolymerisation for PET", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Recycling via chemical depolymerisation for PET", "name": "Recycling via chemical depolymerisation for PET", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Recycling" ], "description": "This chemical recycling technology uses chemicals to break down polymers into monomers. Techniques vary in the amount of heat and pressure used, but generally considerably less heat is used compared to pyrolysis.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Improved recycling would help reduce the need for virgin production and can reduce downcycling in which a material is recycled into a lower value end. However, behavioural barriers also need to be overcome to increase plastics collection rates, and secondary production is unlikely to ever fully replace the need for primary production.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Recycling via chemical depolymerisation for polystyrene", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Recycling via chemical depolymerisation for polystyrene", "name": "Recycling via chemical depolymerisation for polystyrene", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Recycling" ], "description": "This chemical recycling technology uses chemicals to break down polymers into monomers. Techniques vary in the amount of heat and pressure used, but in general, considerably less heat is used compared to pyrolysis.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Improved recycling would help reduce the need for virgin production and can reduce downcycling in which a material is recycled into a lower value end. However, behavioural barriers also need to be overcome to increase plastics collection rates, and secondary production is unlikely to ever fully replace the need for primary production.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Recycling via hydrothermal upgrading", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Recycling via hydrothermal upgrading", "name": "Recycling via hydrothermal upgrading", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Recycling" ], "description": "This process uses water under supercritical conditions to crack carbon bonds within end-of-life plastic, thus breaking down polymers into shorter chain hydrocarbons.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Improved recycling would help reduce the need for virgin production and can reduce downcycling in which a material is recycled into a lower value end. However, behavioural barriers also need to be overcome to increase plastics collection rates, and secondary production is unlikely to ever fully replace the need for primary production.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Recycling via solvent dissolution for PET", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Recycling via solvent dissolution for PET", "name": "Recycling via solvent dissolution for PET", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Recycling" ], "description": "Solvent is used to separate out the polymer, which is then purified in a liquid state (similar to purifying drinking water). The polymer is not depolymerised (broken into its component monomers), but rather purification removes colour, odour and contaminants from plastic waste in order to extract a virgin-quality polymer.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Improved recycling would help reduce the need for virgin production and can reduce downcycling in which a material is recycled into a lower value end. However, behavioural barriers also need to be overcome to increase plastics collection rates, and secondary production is unlikely to ever fully replace the need for primary production.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Recycling via solvent dissolution for PP", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Recycling via solvent dissolution for PP", "name": "Recycling via solvent dissolution for PP", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Recycling" ], "description": "Solvent is used to separate out the polymer, which is then purified in a liquid state (similar to purifying drinking water). The polymer is not depolymerised (broken into its component monomers), but rather purification removes colour, odour and contaminants from plastic waste in order to extract a virgin-quality polymer.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Improved recycling would help reduce the need for virgin production and can reduce downcycling in which a material is recycled into a lower value end. However, behavioural barriers also need to be overcome to increase plastics collection rates, and secondary production is unlikely to ever fully replace the need for primary production.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Thermal decontamination in a vacuum reactor with integrated nitrogen flushing for PET", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Thermal decontamination in a vacuum reactor with integrated nitrogen flushing for PET", "name": "Thermal decontamination in a vacuum reactor with integrated nitrogen flushing for PET", "sector": [ "Industry", "Chemicals", "Recycling" ], "description": "This process produces new food-grade bottles from used bottles through a melting and decontamination process in a reactor. Moisture is removed from PET flakes under vacuum conditions, and nitrogen flushing to reduce colouration. Heat causes the polymer structure to open, enabling removal of contaminants and internal moisture. Pellets are then formed in a centrifuge, then undergo solid state polycondensation, before being extruded into new plastic.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Improved recycling would help reduce the need for virgin production and can reduce downcycling in which a material is recycled into a lower value end. However, behavioural barriers also need to be overcome to increase plastics collection rates, and secondary production is unlikely to ever fully replace the need for primary production.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Electrochemical DAC (e-DAC)", "breadcrumb": "Carbon capture and storage > Electrochemical DAC (e-DAC)", "name": "Electrochemical DAC (e-DAC)", "sector": [ "Carbon capture and storage", "CO2 capture", "Direct air capture" ], "description": "Electrochemical direct air capture (e-DAC) is an emerging technology to capture CO2 from the atmosphere and either use it as a feedstock or store it underground. e-DAC can operate at or near ambient conditions and run entirely on electricity. Pathways under development include membrane electrodialysis, alkaline electrolysis, electro-swing adsorption and cathodic adsorption. These electrochemical approaches have the potential to reach higher capture efficiency and lower energy use than thermal DAC processes, while requiring a smaller land footprint and offering high operational flexibility, allowing CO2 capture to ramp up and down in response to the availability of low-cost renewable power.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "DAC can provide carbon removal services when the captured CO2 is stored underground and exceeds the amount of emissions generated to build, install and operate the plant over its lifetime.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Liquid DAC (l-DAC)", "breadcrumb": "Carbon capture and storage > Liquid DAC (l-DAC)", "name": "Liquid DAC (l-DAC)", "sector": [ "Carbon capture and storage", "CO2 capture", "Direct air capture" ], "description": "Liquid direct air capture (L-DAC) is a technology that aims to capture CO2 from the atmosphere and either use it as a feedstock or store it underground. L-DAC is based on two closed chemical loops. The first loop takes place in a unit called the contactor, which brings atmospheric air into contact with an aqueous basic solution (such as potassium hydroxide), capturing CO2. The second loop releases the captured CO2 from the solution in a series of units operating at high temperature (between 300°C and 900°C). A large-scale L-DAC plant can capture around 0.5-1 MtCO2\/year from the atmosphere. Water top-up may be required depending on local weather conditions.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "DAC can provide carbon removal services when the captured CO2 is stored underground and exceeds the amount of emissions generated to build, install and operate the plant over its lifetime.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Solid DAC (s-DAC)", "breadcrumb": "Carbon capture and storage > Solid DAC (s-DAC)", "name": "Solid DAC (s-DAC)", "sector": [ "Carbon capture and storage", "CO2 capture", "Direct air capture" ], "description": "Solid direct air capture (S-DAC) is a technology that aims to capture CO2 from the atmosphere and either use it as a feedstock or store it underground. S-DAC is based on solid adsorbents operating through an adsorption\/desorption cycling process. While the adsorption takes place at ambient temperature and pressure, the desorption happens through a temperature–vacuum swing process, where CO2 is released at low pressure and medium temperature (80-120°C). A single adsorption\/desorption unit has a capture capacity of several tens of tonnes of CO2 per year and can be used to extract water from the atmosphere where local conditions allow. An S-DAC plant is designed to be modular and can include as many units as needed.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "DAC can provide carbon removal services when the captured CO2 is stored underground and exceeds the amount of emissions generated to build, install and operate the plant over its lifetime.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Advanced CO2 storage monitoring technologies", "breadcrumb": "Carbon capture and storage > Advanced CO2 storage monitoring technologies", "name": "Advanced CO2 storage monitoring technologies", "sector": [ "Carbon capture and storage", "CO2 storage", "Other storage technologies" ], "description": "Advanced monitoring technologies are improving the ability to track the movement of the CO2 plume within a reservoir, check for leaks, and monitor reservoir pressure. These technologies are an integral part of safe and secure operations of a storage site. How they are deployed is in part determined by regulatory requirements within a jurisdiction and the specific characteristics of storage sites.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 storage", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 7, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "CO2 storage is an essential element of the CCUS chain. CCUS is a key technology enabling emissions reductions across the power, industry and fuel transformation sectors. Furthermore, it can deliver negative emissions by removing CO2 from the atmosphere and storing it permanently underground.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "CO2 sequestration in inert carbonate materials (mineralisation)", "breadcrumb": "Carbon capture and storage > CO2 sequestration in inert carbonate materials (mineralisation)", "name": "CO2 sequestration in inert carbonate materials (mineralisation)", "sector": [ "Carbon capture and storage", "CO2 storage", "Mineral storage" ], "description": "CO2 from industrial emitters can be used as a raw material in the production of building materials. The most mature applications involve the replacement of water with CO2 during the formation of concrete, called CO2 curing, and the reaction of CO2 with waste materials from power plants or industrial processes (e.g. iron slag, coal fly ash), which would otherwise be stockpiled or stored in landfill, to form construction aggregates (small particulates used in building materials). The CO2 used in building materials is permanently stored in the product. CO2-cured concrete can deliver lower costs compared to conventionally-produced concrete, while building materials from waste and CO2 can be competitive in some cases, as they avoid the cost associated with conventional waste disposal. Producing building materials from waste can be energy intensive, particularly the pre-treatment and post-treatment steps. For structural applications of building materials (e.g. building, bridges, etc.), multi-year trial projects are required to demonstrate safe and environmentally friendly performance.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 storage" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "CO2 sequestration in carbonates can provide a semi-permanent storage option for CO2, perhaps providing an option where geological storage options are limited and potentially providing value by delivering concrete with lower costs. It requires capture technologies to function and thus achieve emission reductions; if the CO2 is sourced from industrial sources other than cement, it would not reduce the CO2 emissions from cement production itself. The potential for CO2 emissions sequestration can vary considerably according to the mineralisation process employed.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "CO2 storage in depleted oil and gas reservoir", "breadcrumb": "Carbon capture and storage > CO2 storage in depleted oil and gas reservoir", "name": "CO2 storage in depleted oil and gas reservoir", "sector": [ "Carbon capture and storage", "CO2 storage", "Other storage technologies" ], "description": "CO2 storage involves permanent retention of CO2 in underground geological reservoirs (> 800 metres deep). The main types of geological reservoirs suitable for CO2 storage are deep saline formations and depleted oil and gas reservoirs.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 storage" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "CO2 storage is an essential element of the CCUS chain. CCUS is a key technology enabling emissions reductions across the power, industry and fuel transformation sectors. Furthermore, it can deliver negative emissions by removing CO2 from the atmosphere and storing it permanently underground.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "CO2 storage in saline formation", "breadcrumb": "Carbon capture and storage > CO2 storage in saline formation", "name": "CO2 storage in saline formation", "sector": [ "Carbon capture and storage", "CO2 storage", "Other storage technologies" ], "description": "CO2 storage involves permanent retention of CO2 in underground geological reservoirs (> 800 metres deep). The main types of geological reservoirs suitable for CO2 storage are deep saline formations and depleted oil and gas reservoirs.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 storage" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "CO2 storage is an essential element of the CCUS chain. CCUS is a key technology enabling emissions reductions across the power, industry and fuel transformation sectors. Furthermore, it can deliver negative emissions by removing CO2 from the atmosphere and storing it permanently underground.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "CO2-enhanced oil recovery", "breadcrumb": "Carbon capture and storage > CO2-enhanced oil recovery", "name": "CO2-enhanced oil recovery", "sector": [ "Carbon capture and storage", "CO2 storage", "Other storage technologies" ], "description": "CO2 injections can occur during tertiary production at oil fields to enhance oil recovery. Called CO2-EOR, this technique was pioneered in the United States. Following CO2-EOR operations, the majority of injected CO2 may remain permanently trapped in the reservoir where it was injected. However, conventional CO2-EOR operations require additional activities to confirm that injected CO2 remains stored underground. The IEA calls this CO2-EOR+, https:\/\/www.iea.org\/reports\/storing-CO2-through-enhanced-oil-recovery", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 storage" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Out of all CO2 utilisation pathways, CO2-EOR uses the highest volume of captured CO2 per year. It has been a historical driver for CCUS deployment due to the revenue stream it generates.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Dissolved CO2 injections", "breadcrumb": "Carbon capture and storage > Dissolved CO2 injections", "name": "Dissolved CO2 injections", "sector": [ "Carbon capture and storage", "CO2 storage", "Mineral storage" ], "description": "Mineral storage, a technology based on injection of CO2 into rock formations with high concentrations of reactive minerals, is under development. Basalts and peridotites are targeted since both are rich with metals that react with CO2 to form carbonate minerals. Experience of this type of storage is very limited, but it can be done either with supercritical CO2 or with CO2 dissolved in water.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 storage" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "CO2 storage is an essential element of the CCUS chain. CCUS is a key technology enabling emissions reductions across the power, industry and fuel transformation sectors. Furthermore, it can deliver negative emissions by removing CO2 from the atmosphere and storing it permanently underground.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Supercritical CO2 injections", "breadcrumb": "Carbon capture and storage > Supercritical CO2 injections", "name": "Supercritical CO2 injections", "sector": [ "Carbon capture and storage", "CO2 storage", "Mineral storage" ], "description": "Mineral storage, a technology based on injection of CO2 into rock formations with high concentrations of reactive minerals, is under development. Basalts and peridotites are targeted since both are rich with metals that react with CO2 to form carbonate minerals. Experience of this type of storage is very limited, but it can be done either with supercritical CO2 or with CO2 dissolved in water.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 storage" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "CO2 storage is an essential element of the CCUS chain. CCUS is a key technology enabling emissions reductions across the power, industry and fuel transformation sectors. Furthermore, it can deliver negative emissions by removing CO2 from the atmosphere and storing it permanently underground.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "CO2 shipping", "breadcrumb": "Carbon capture and storage > CO2 shipping", "name": "CO2 shipping", "sector": [ "Carbon capture and storage", "CO2 transport" ], "description": "Shipping can be used as a long-distance transportation method for CO2, offering more flexibility than pipelines over long distances. CO2 can be shipped at low-, medium- and high-pressure conditions depending on the design of the tanker. Low-pressure and medium-pressure conditions are similar to those found in LPG shipping. Shipping can be port-to-port or port-to-offshore. Infrastructure for CO2 liquification, loading and temporary storage of CO2 is required at the port of departure, and similar infrastructure is required at the receiving port in the case of port-to-port shipping. When CO2 is shipped from port to an offshore location, ships need to be able to interface with offshore infrastructure to unload CO2 into temporary storage, or directly inject it into the storage site. The TRL of ship-based transport of CO2 with direct injection is the lowest, followed by port-to-offshore shipping and then port-to-port shipping.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 transport" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "CO2 transport is an essential element of the CCUS chain. Shipping is particularly interesting for long distance transport of relatively small volumes of CO2. It also provides more flexibility compared to pipeline transport. CCUS is a key technology enabling emissions reductions across the power, industry and fuel transformation sectors. Furthermore, it can deliver negative emissions by removing CO2 from the atmosphere and storing it permanently underground.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "CO2 terminal", "breadcrumb": "Carbon capture and storage > CO2 terminal", "name": "CO2 terminal", "sector": [ "Carbon capture and storage", "CO2 transport" ], "description": "CO2 terminals include infrastructure for CO2 liquification, loading and temporary storage of CO2, in order to receive CO2 coming from various emitters and send it out to multiple storage sites using carriers and pipelines.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 transport" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, 7, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "CO2 terminals are an essential element of complex CCUS value chains, that can help leverage economies of scale, and allow smaller and disperse emitters easier access to CO2 transport and storage infrastructure.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "CO2 transport pipeline", "breadcrumb": "Carbon capture and storage > CO2 transport pipeline", "name": "CO2 transport pipeline", "sector": [ "Carbon capture and storage", "CO2 transport" ], "description": "Pipelines are a cost-effective way to connect sites where CO2 is captured with sites where CO2 is stored or used. Pipelines are an effective method to transport large volumes of CO2 and, depending on pipeline design, CO2 can be transported in gaseous, liquid, dense-phase, or supercritical forms. Before pipeline transport, CO2 is compressed to increase the density of the CO2, thereby making it easier and less costly to transport. Certain impurities may also be removed depending on the specifications required by pipeline operators.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 transport" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "CO2 transport is an essential element of the CCUS chain. Pipeline transport is often the easiest and most cost effective mode of transport. CCUS is a key technology enabling emissions reductions across the power, industry and fuel transformation sectors. Furthermore, it can deliver negative emissions by removing CO2 from the atmosphere and storing it permanently underground.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Chemical looping combustion (coal)", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Chemical looping combustion (coal)", "name": "Chemical looping combustion (coal)", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Coal", "Carbon management" ], "description": "Chemical looping is a technology that involves CO2 capture at high temperatures using two main reactors. Chemical looping systems use small particles of metal (e.g. iron, manganese) to bind oxygen from the air to form a metal oxide (1st reactor), which is then transported to the other reactor where it releases the oxygen for the combustion of the fuel, thus generating energy and a concentrated stream of CO2 (2nd reactor). The metal is then looped back to the first reactor. A main benefit of solid looping is the potentially lower overall process energy consumption. Challenges include reducing the cost and degradation of the metal carrier (IEAGHG, 2019).", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Being at an early development stage, there are uncertainties on future costs.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Coal mine methane use for energy supply", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Coal mine methane use for energy supply", "name": "Coal mine methane use for energy supply", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Coal", "Methane emissions monitoring and abatement" ], "description": "Degasification wells and drainage boreholes can capture methane in coal reservoirs (coal seams or strata), reducing the potential of leaks during production. This methane can be used for power generation, pipeline injection, combined power and heat generation, and other technologies (e.g. manufacturing feedstock). Ventilation air methane at high enough concentrations and flows can serve as supplemental fuel for combustion air engines.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Cutting methane emissions from the energy sector by 75% by 2030 is one of the least cost opportunities to limit global warming in the near term. This is one of the technologies available to reduce coal mine methane emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Coal mine methane use for on-site heating or coal drying", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Coal mine methane use for on-site heating or coal drying", "name": "Coal mine methane use for on-site heating or coal drying", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Coal", "Methane emissions monitoring and abatement" ], "description": "Degasification wells and drainage boreholes can capture methane in coal reservoirs (coal seams or strata), reducing the potential of leaks during production. This methane can be used as a heat source either in boilers (for in-mine heating) or coal drying systems. Ventilation air methane at high enough concentrations and flows can also serve as an energy source. This allows mines to use less coal for these activities.", "supplyChain": [ "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Cutting methane emissions from the energy sector by 75% by 2030 is one of the least cost opportunities to limit global warming in the near term. This is one of the technologies available to reduce coal mine methane emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Improved coal combustion (methane slips and oxidation rates)", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Improved coal combustion (methane slips and oxidation rates)", "name": "Improved coal combustion (methane slips and oxidation rates)", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Coal", "Methane emissions monitoring and abatement" ], "description": "Better operational conditions and monitoring processes can reduce methane slips from incomplete combustion at flares and improve oxidation rates at ventilation air methane oxidation units. These include measures to monitor abatement processes (e.g. flaring destruction efficiency), automate air-fuel ratio controls as well as reduce upset conditions (e.g. unlit flares).", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Cutting methane emissions from the energy sector by 75% by 2030 is one of the least cost opportunities to limit global warming in the near term. This is one of the technologies available to reduce coal mine methane emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Operational and continuous monitoring in coal facilities", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Operational and continuous monitoring in coal facilities", "name": "Operational and continuous monitoring in coal facilities", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Coal", "Methane emissions monitoring and abatement" ], "description": "Monitoring and repair can avoid methane emissions by identifying potential sources of emissions and avoiding new sources, sealing fugitive sources (e.g. closing unused mine entries or boreholes) and directing them to available abatement systems. This includes emissions from outcrops, fractured ground above workings and unsealed mine entries or unintentional emissions from gas infrastructure of methane projects installed on a mine. Operational monitoring includes supplementary equipment maintenance and planning to avoid equipment downtime and unnecessary methane venting related to routine operations.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Cutting methane emissions from the energy sector by 75% by 2030 is one of the least cost opportunities to limit global warming in the near term. This is one of the technologies available to reduce coal mine methane emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Oxy-fuelling (coal)", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Oxy-fuelling (coal)", "name": "Oxy-fuelling (coal)", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Coal", "Carbon management" ], "description": "An oxy-fuelling coal-fired power plant involves the combustion of coal using nearly pure oxygen instead of air, resulting in a flue gas composed of CO2 and water vapour, which can be dehydrated to obtain a high-purity CO2 stream. Typically, oxygen is commercially produced via low-temperature air separation. Lowering the energy consumption and cost for oxygen production (via improved low-temperature air separation or air-separating membranes, or by generating oxygen during periods of low-cost power, e.g. during night time), and the overall oxyfuel process, are key factors in reducing capture costs.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Competing with alternative (and in the case of post-combustion more mature) CCUS technologies for coal-fired power plants.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Post-combustion: chemical absorption (coal with CCUS)", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Post-combustion: chemical absorption (coal with CCUS)", "name": "Post-combustion: chemical absorption (coal with CCUS)", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Coal", "Carbon management", "Post-combustion capture" ], "description": "At a coal-fired power plant with post-combustion capture using chemical absorption, the CO2 is separated from the combustion flue gas by using a chemical solvent (e.g. amine-based). The CO2 is released at elevated temperatures, the solvent regenerated and recycled back for further operation.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Post-combustion capture can be a retrofit option for existing and relatively young coal-fired power plants. The technology has also operated successfully for tens of thousands of hours at commercial scale. While existing CO2 capture power plants are designed for 85-90% CO2 capture, much higher capture rates are feasible for a relatively modest increase in cost. Following demonstration at scale, higher capture rates are likely to be implemented as demands for stricter emissions reductions grow.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Post-combustion: membranes polymeric (coal with CCUS)", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Post-combustion: membranes polymeric (coal with CCUS)", "name": "Post-combustion: membranes polymeric (coal with CCUS)", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Coal", "Carbon management", "Post-combustion capture" ], "description": "At a coal-fired power plant with post-combustion capture using chemical absorption, the CO2 is separated from the combustion flue gas by membranes, which are polymeric films and act as a selective barrier able to separate CO2 from a stream. They can also act, in a non-selective way, as a contacting device between the gas stream and the liquid solvent (i.e. membrane absorption).", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Less mature post-combustion capture compared to chemical absorption.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Post-combustion: solid adsorption (coal with CCUS)", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Post-combustion: solid adsorption (coal with CCUS)", "name": "Post-combustion: solid adsorption (coal with CCUS)", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Coal", "Carbon management", "Post-combustion capture" ], "description": "In solid adsorption, the carbon dioxide is separated from the combustion flue gas by using a solid sorbent (e.g. zeolites, metal organic framework). Compared to amine-based chemical absorption, solid adsorbents can have lower regeneration energy and greater adsorption selectivity.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Solid adsorption can be a lower cost alternative to chemical absorption and avoid potential environmental impact related to amine degradation.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Pre-combustion: physical absorption (coal with CCUS)", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Pre-combustion: physical absorption (coal with CCUS)", "name": "Pre-combustion: physical absorption (coal with CCUS)", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Coal", "Carbon management" ], "description": "In an integrated gasification combined-cycle coal power plant, coal is gasified into a synthesis gas, consisting of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The synthesis gas is shifted in a water-gas-shift (WGS) reaction to produce additional hydrogen and convert the carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide is then captured from the shifted syngas using physical separation processes, such as adsorption, and afterwards, the remaining hydrogen (H2) is combusted in a combined-cycle gas turbine that generates power.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "No integrated gasification combined-cycle coal power plant with CO2 capture is in commercial operation yet. While construction of an air-blown commercial-scale plant in the United States has been abandoned, test operation at an oxygen-blown commercial-scale demonstration plant started at the end of 2019 in Japan.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Supercritical CO2 cycle (coal with CCUS)", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Supercritical CO2 cycle (coal with CCUS)", "name": "Supercritical CO2 cycle (coal with CCUS)", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Coal", "Carbon management" ], "description": "While in conventional power plants flue gas or steam is used to drive one or multiple turbines, in supercritical CO2 (sCO2) cycles supercritical CO2 is used, i.e. CO2 at or above its critical temperature and pressure, where liquid and gaseous phases of CO2 are indistinguishable. sCO2 cycles offer many potential advantages, including higher plant efficiencies, lower air pollutant emissions, lower investment costs and high CO2 capture rates. In some cases, they could also allow for reduced water consumption. sCO2 cycles typically use nearly pure oxygen to combust the fuel gas in order to create a flue gas stream comprised primarily of CO2 and water vapour.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "There is currently limited information on several operational challenges, including on combustion and flame dynamics.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ventilation air methane oxidisers", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Ventilation air methane oxidisers", "name": "Ventilation air methane oxidisers", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Coal", "Methane emissions monitoring and abatement" ], "description": "Underground coal mines use ventilation systems to move fresh air into the mine, dilute methane released into the mine workings as coal is extracted, and maintain safe working conditions. Thermal or catalytic oxidation technologies are technically feasible at low methane concentrations, between 0.25% and 1.25%, and enable the destruction of ventilation air methane to reduce its climate impact.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Cutting methane emissions from the energy sector by 75% by 2030 is one of the least cost opportunities to limit global warming in the near term. This is one of the technologies available to reduce coal mine methane emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Anaerobic digester cooking", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Anaerobic digester cooking", "name": "Anaerobic digester cooking", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Cooking technologies", "Biofuels" ], "description": "Anaerobic digester cooking uses biogas produced from the anaerobic digestion of organic waste as a fuel for cooking. Organic materials such as food waste, animal manure or agricultural residues decompose in an oxygen-free digester, producing a mixture of gases primarily composed of methane and carbon dioxide. The biogas is collected and stored in a flexible bag or tank connected to a stove, where it can be burned similarly to natural gas for cooking. Small household digesters are widely used in rural areas and can simultaneously provide waste treatment, fertiliser by-products and a renewable cooking fuel.", "supplyChain": [ "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Provides a renewable alternative to traditional biomass cooking while reducing indoor air pollution and supporting access to cleaner cooking fuels in buildings.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Biomass gasification stove", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Biomass gasification stove", "name": "Biomass gasification stove", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Cooking technologies", "Biofuels" ], "description": "Biomass gasification stoves convert solid biomass such as wood, crop residues or pellets into a combustible gas before it is burned for cooking. In these systems, the biomass is heated in a limited-oxygen environment, producing a mixture of gases mainly composed of carbon monoxide, hydrogen and methane. This gas then burns above the fuel bed with a clean, hot flame. By separating the gas production and combustion stages, gasification stoves achieve more complete combustion and higher temperatures than traditional biomass stoves. Many designs also include forced air supplied by small fans to improve the gasification process and further reduce smoke emissions.", "supplyChain": [ "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Provides a more efficient and cleaner way to use biomass for cooking in buildings compared with traditional solid fuel stoves.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Electric stove", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Electric stove", "name": "Electric stove", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Cooking technologies", "Electricity" ], "description": "Electric stoves generate heat through metal resistance elements located beneath a cooking surface, typically a metal plate or a smooth glass-ceramic top. When electricity flows through the element it heats up and transfers heat to the cookware placed above it. Unlike gas burners, which heat cookware with an open flame, electric stoves convert electricity directly into heat inside the element.Because the element itself must heat up before transferring energy to the pan, these systems generally respond more slowly than induction cooktops. Electric resistance stoves remain widely used in residential kitchens, particularly in buildings without access to gas infrastructure. Their simple design and compatibility with all types of cookware make them one of the most common electric cooking technologies.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", "C", "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Electric stoves support the electrification of cooking in buildings by replacing fossil fuel cooking appliances. As electricity systems integrate more low-carbon generation, electric cooking technologies can help reduce emissions associated with residential energy use.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen cooking", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Hydrogen cooking", "name": "Hydrogen cooking", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Cooking technologies", "Other sources" ], "description": "Hydrogen cooking refers to the use of hydrogen gas as a fuel for cooking appliances. The hydrogen is burned in a burner similar to those used in conventional gas stoves, producing heat through combustion with oxygen. The main by-product of this reaction is water vapour, as hydrogen contains no carbon and therefore does not produce carbon dioxide during combustion. Hydrogen cooking systems could operate in buildings connected to hydrogen distribution networks or supplied by locally produced hydrogen, for example from electrolysis powered by renewable electricity. In practice, adapting cooking appliances and gas infrastructure to hydrogen requires addressing issues such as flame characteristics, safety systems and compatibility of existing gas networks.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 5, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Offers a potential pathway to decarbonise gas-based cooking in buildings where hydrogen infrastructure becomes available.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Improved biomass cooking stove", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Improved biomass cooking stove", "name": "Improved biomass cooking stove", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Cooking technologies", "Biofuels" ], "description": "Improved biomass cooking stoves, often referred to as rocket stoves, are designed to burn solid biomass fuels such as wood, charcoal or agricultural residues more efficiently than traditional open-fire cooking. These stoves use an insulated combustion chamber and a vertical chimney that promotes stronger airflow and more complete combustion of the fuel. By improving the combustion process, the stove generates higher temperatures while using less fuel and producing fewer smoke emissions. The design is relatively simple and can be manufactured locally, which has supported large-scale deployment in many regions where traditional biomass cooking remains common.", "supplyChain": [ "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Improves the efficiency of biomass cooking in buildings while reducing fuel consumption and indoor air pollution compared with traditional open-fire cooking.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Induction cooking", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Induction cooking", "name": "Induction cooking", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Cooking technologies", "Electricity" ], "description": "Induction cooking heats cookware using electromagnetic induction rather than direct heating of the cooking surface. Beneath the cooktop, a copper coil generates an alternating magnetic field when electricity flows through it. When a compatible ferromagnetic pan is placed on the surface, the magnetic field induces electric currents directly in the metal of the cookware, producing heat inside the pan itself. Because the heat is generated in the cookware rather than the stove surface, energy losses are lower and temperature control is very responsive. Induction systems can reach efficiencies of around 80–90%, significantly higher than conventional electric resistance stoves, and the cooktop surface remains relatively cool once the pan is removed.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", "C", "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Supports efficient electrification of cooking in buildings by reducing energy losses compared with conventional electric stoves.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "LPG stove", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > LPG stove", "name": "LPG stove", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Cooking technologies", "Other sources" ], "description": "Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) stoves use liquefied petroleum gas, typically propane or butane, as a fuel for cooking. The gas is stored under pressure in cylinders or tanks and released through a burner where it mixes with air and combusts to produce a controllable flame. LPG stoves operate in a similar way to natural gas appliances but do not require connection to a gas network, which allows them to be used in areas without pipeline infrastructure. Because LPG has a high energy density and burns relatively cleanly compared with solid fuels, LPG stoves can deliver strong and adjustable heat for cooking while producing fewer smoke emissions than traditional biomass stoves.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Provides a cleaner and more efficient cooking option in buildings compared with traditional biomass fuels, particularly in areas without access to gas networks.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Solar cooking", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Solar cooking", "name": "Solar cooking", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Cooking technologies", "Other sources" ], "description": "Solar cookers use sunlight as the primary energy source for cooking. Most designs rely on reflective surfaces such as mirrors or polished metal panels that concentrate solar radiation onto a cooking vessel, raising its temperature. Other configurations use insulated boxes with transparent covers that trap heat through a greenhouse effect. Because the system relies directly on solar radiation, solar cookers do not require fuel and produce no direct emissions during operation. However, cooking times can be longer than with conventional stoves and performance depends on solar availability, which often leads users to combine solar cookers with other cooking technologies.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Provides a renewable cooking solution that eliminates fuel use and emissions during operation in buildings where sufficient solar radiation is available.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Additive manufacturing for building materials", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Additive manufacturing for building materials", "name": "Additive manufacturing for building materials", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope materials", "Reducing material losses" ], "description": "Additive manufacturing, often referred to as 3D printing, is a construction technique where building components are created layer by layer using digitally controlled machines. In the construction sector, the technology is commonly applied to concrete printing, where a robotic system deposits successive layers of cementitious material to form walls or structural elements directly from a digital design. The process can produce complex geometries that are difficult to achieve with traditional formwork and can reduce the need for moulds and manual labour. In precast concrete production, additive manufacturing can also be used to create reusable moulds with high precision. By placing material only where it is structurally required, the technology can reduce raw material use by up to about 50% compared with conventional construction approaches.", "supplyChain": [ "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Improves material efficiency in building construction by reducing waste and enabling optimized structural designs.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Aerogel insulation from silica or carbon", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Aerogel insulation from silica or carbon", "name": "Aerogel insulation from silica or carbon", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope technologies", "Wall, roof & façade" ], "description": "Aerogel insulation is a highly porous material where the liquid component of a gel has been replaced with gas, creating an extremely lightweight solid with very low thermal conductivity. Most building aerogels are made from silica or carbon-based materials and contain up to 90–99% air by volume, which strongly limits heat transfer through the material. This structure allows aerogel insulation to provide several times the thermal resistance of conventional insulation materials at the same thickness. Because of its transparency in some forms, aerogel can also be used in applications such as translucent insulation panels or advanced glazing systems.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Provides very high thermal insulation performance in buildings, allowing thinner envelope components while reducing heating and cooling demand.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Building design optimization tools", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Building design optimization tools", "name": "Building design optimization tools", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building design tools" ], "description": "Building design optimization tools are digital software platforms used during the design phase of buildings to evaluate and compare different design options. These tools simulate how choices such as building geometry, orientation, materials, insulation levels, glazing design or shading systems influence energy consumption, daylight availability and thermal comfort. By analysing many combinations of parameters, designers can identify solutions that improve building performance before construction begins. Some tools can automatically generate and test large numbers of design alternatives, helping architects and engineers find configurations that minimize energy demand while meeting architectural and functional requirements.", "supplyChain": [ "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Improves building energy performance by enabling designers to optimise building form, materials and systems before construction.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Building envelope air sealing", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Building envelope air sealing", "name": "Building envelope air sealing", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope technologies", "Wall, roof & façade" ], "description": "Building envelope air sealing consists of systematically closing unintended air leakage paths throughout the building shell. These leaks commonly occur around joints, cracks, electrical penetrations, plumbing openings, lighting fixtures, windows, doors and duct connections. Materials such as sealants, foam, gaskets or airtight tapes are used to seal these gaps and create a more airtight building envelope. Reducing uncontrolled air infiltration helps prevent heat losses in winter and unwanted heat gains in summer, while also limiting moisture transport through the building structure. Air sealing is often implemented together with controlled ventilation systems to ensure proper indoor air renewal.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Reduces heat losses and improves energy efficiency in buildings by limiting uncontrolled air infiltration through the building envelope.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Building information modeling (BIM) softwares", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Building information modeling (BIM) softwares", "name": "Building information modeling (BIM) softwares", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building design tools" ], "description": "Building Information Modeling (BIM) software creates digital 3D models of buildings that integrate detailed information about geometry, materials, equipment and construction processes. Unlike traditional design drawings, BIM models act as shared data platforms where architects, engineers and contractors can collaborate throughout the design, construction and operation phases of a building. The model can include information on structural elements, mechanical systems, energy performance and maintenance requirements. Because the building is represented digitally before it is built, designers can analyse different configurations, detect conflicts between systems and optimise the building’s performance during the design stage.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Helps optimise building design and operation by enabling better coordination between technologies and improving the energy performance of buildings.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Building integrated heat and moisture exchange panel", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Building integrated heat and moisture exchange panel", "name": "Building integrated heat and moisture exchange panel", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope technologies", "Wall, roof & façade" ], "description": "Building integrated heat and moisture exchange panels are façade or wall components designed to precondition incoming ventilation air by transferring both heat and humidity between air streams. The panel typically integrates a heat and moisture exchange material within the building envelope, allowing fresh outdoor air to pass through while exchanging thermal energy and water vapour with exhaust air from the building. By moderating both temperature and humidity before the air enters the ventilation system, the panels reduce the energy required for heating, cooling and dehumidification. These systems extend the concept of energy recovery ventilators by integrating the heat and moisture exchange function directly into building components.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Reduces energy demand for ventilation in buildings by recovering both heat and moisture from exhaust air.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Building integrated phase change materials", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Building integrated phase change materials", "name": "Building integrated phase change materials", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope technologies", "Wall, roof & façade" ], "description": "Building integrated phase change materials store thermal energy within building components by absorbing and releasing heat during phase transitions, typically between solid and liquid states. These materials can be incorporated into concrete elements, wallboards, glazing systems or insulation layers, allowing parts of the building structure to act as thermal storage. During periods of high indoor temperature, the material absorbs heat as it melts, helping stabilize indoor temperatures. When temperatures fall, the material solidifies and releases the stored heat back into the building. By storing heat at nearly constant temperature, phase change materials can improve thermal stability within buildings. However, their widespread use remains limited because material costs are still relatively high compared with conventional construction materials.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Enhances the thermal performance of buildings by increasing their ability to store and release heat, helping reduce heating and cooling demand.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Building integrated solar thermal collector (BIST)", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Building integrated solar thermal collector (BIST)", "name": "Building integrated solar thermal collector (BIST)", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope technologies", "Solar thermal technologies for wall, roof & façades" ], "description": "Building integrated solar thermal collectors are façade or roof elements that capture solar radiation and convert it into heat while simultaneously acting as part of the building envelope. Instead of mounting solar collectors as separate rooftop equipment, the collectors are integrated directly into the building skin, allowing the surface of the building to function as both an architectural component and an energy system. The captured solar heat is transferred to a circulating fluid and can be used for space heating, domestic hot water or to support heating and cooling systems. Integrating the collectors into building surfaces can reduce installation costs and improve the aesthetics of solar thermal systems. In global energy transition scenarios, solar thermal technologies are expected to be installed in around 400 million dwellings by 2030, highlighting their potential role in providing renewable heat for buildings.", "supplyChain": [ "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Provides renewable heat for buildings by integrating solar thermal energy collection directly into the building envelope.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Building prefabrication", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Building prefabrication", "name": "Building prefabrication", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope materials", "Reducing material losses" ], "description": "Building prefabrication involves manufacturing structural components of a building in a controlled factory environment before transporting them to the construction site for assembly. Elements such as walls, floors, roofs or entire modular units are produced off-site using standardised processes and then installed rapidly on-site. This approach allows higher precision in manufacturing, better quality control and reduced construction time compared with traditional on-site construction. Because materials can be cut and assembled under controlled conditions, prefabrication can also reduce construction waste and improve the efficiency of material use. The approach is widely used in modular housing, commercial buildings and large construction projects.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Improves construction efficiency and reduces material waste in building projects, helping lower the overall energy and resource demand of the construction process.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Carbon negative construction material", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Carbon negative construction material", "name": "Carbon negative construction material", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope technologies", "Wall, roof & façade" ], "description": "Carbon-negative construction materials are building materials designed to remove more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than is emitted during their production and use. This can be achieved through processes that capture and store CO2 within the material structure or by using bio-based materials that absorb carbon during growth. Examples include certain bio-based construction materials, mineralisation-based cements or other innovative materials that incorporate captured carbon dioxide into their composition. By storing carbon within the material itself, these technologies can transform building components into long-term carbon storage while still providing structural or insulation functions.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Reduces the overall carbon footprint of buildings by turning construction materials into long-term carbon storage while lowering emissions from the building sector.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Composite construction", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Composite construction", "name": "Composite construction", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope materials", "Lightweighting" ], "description": "Composite construction combines two or more structural materials so that they work together to carry loads in a building. Typical examples include steel columns with reinforced concrete floor beams, steel frames combined with concrete cores, concrete-filled steel tubes or timber structures combined with concrete elements. Each material contributes its strengths. Steel provides high tensile strength and structural flexibility, while concrete provides compressive strength and stiffness. By combining these materials, composite structures can achieve greater structural efficiency than systems relying on a single material. This approach is widely used in modern buildings, particularly in high-rise construction, where composite systems allow strong yet relatively lightweight structural frames.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Improves structural efficiency in buildings by combining materials with complementary properties, allowing lighter and more efficient structural systems.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Construction site inspection tools", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Construction site inspection tools", "name": "Construction site inspection tools", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building design tools" ], "description": "Construction site inspection tools use immersive digital technologies to monitor and evaluate building construction remotely. These tools typically rely on 3D digital replicas of construction sites, created from sources such as building information models (BIM), drone imagery, laser scanning or photogrammetry. Engineers, architects and project managers can access these virtual environments to inspect progress, verify construction quality and detect potential issues without physically being present on site. By enabling real-time visualisation and comparison between the digital model and the built structure, these systems help improve coordination and reduce delays during construction.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Improves efficiency in building construction by enabling remote inspections and reducing the need for travel during project monitoring.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Cool roof", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Cool roof", "name": "Cool roof", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope technologies", "Wall, roof & façade" ], "description": "Cool roofs are roofing systems designed to reflect a large portion of incoming solar radiation and release absorbed heat more efficiently than conventional roofs. This effect is achieved through materials or coatings with high solar reflectance and high thermal emissivity. For example, reflective paints or specially designed roofing materials can reflect a significant part of the sun’s infrared radiation while maintaining the desired visible colour. By reflecting more solar energy and reducing heat absorption, cool roofs remain at lower surface temperatures than conventional roofing materials, particularly during hot and sunny conditions.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Reduces cooling demand in buildings by limiting heat gains through the roof and lowering indoor temperatures during warm periods.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Double skin facade", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Double skin facade", "name": "Double skin facade", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope technologies", "Wall, roof & façade" ], "description": "A double skin façade consists of two layers of glazing separated by an air cavity that runs along the exterior of the building. The cavity between the two glass layers can be naturally or mechanically ventilated, allowing air to circulate through the façade. This configuration helps regulate heat transfer between the interior and exterior environment. Solar radiation entering the outer glazing can be partially controlled within the cavity using shading devices, while the moving air removes excess heat before it reaches the inner façade. The system improves insulation and allows better management of solar heat gains and daylight entering the building.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Improves building energy performance by reducing heat losses, controlling solar gains and enhancing natural ventilation through the façade system.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Dynamic building envelope", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Dynamic building envelope", "name": "Dynamic building envelope", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope technologies", "Wall, roof & façade" ], "description": "A dynamic building envelope is designed to adapt its behaviour in response to changing environmental conditions or occupant needs. Instead of acting as a static barrier, the envelope can modify properties such as shading, ventilation, thermal mass interaction or moisture transfer through controllable components. Examples include movable shading systems, adjustable ventilation openings, responsive façades and materials that alter thermal behaviour depending on external conditions. By responding to variations in sunlight, temperature and building occupancy, dynamic envelopes help regulate indoor conditions more actively than conventional building envelopes.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Improves the energy performance of buildings by adapting envelope behaviour to changing climate conditions and reducing heating and cooling demand.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Dynamic glazing – thermochromic fenestration", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Dynamic glazing – thermochromic fenestration", "name": "Dynamic glazing – thermochromic fenestration", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope technologies", "Fenestration" ], "description": "Thermochromic glazing is a type of dynamic window that automatically changes its optical properties depending on temperature. The glass contains materials that alter their structure when they reach a certain temperature threshold, reducing solar heat gains and light transmission when the surface becomes warm. When temperatures fall, the material returns to a more transparent state, allowing sunlight and heat to enter the building again. This passive behaviour allows the window to regulate solar heat gains without requiring electricity, helping maintain indoor comfort as outdoor conditions change.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Reduces solar heat gains in buildings and can lower cooling demand by adapting window properties to outdoor temperature conditions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Dynamic insulation", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Dynamic insulation", "name": "Dynamic insulation", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope technologies", "Wall, roof & façade" ], "description": "Dynamic insulation is a building envelope technology where outside air is intentionally drawn through a permeable insulation layer before entering the ventilation system. As the air moves through the insulation material, it absorbs heat that would normally be lost through the building envelope. This process allows part of the heat escaping through the wall to be recovered and reused to preheat incoming ventilation air. The performance of dynamic insulation depends on the properties of the insulation material, particularly its permeability and thermal conductivity, which must allow controlled airflow while maintaining insulating performance.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Reduces heat losses from buildings by recovering heat through the building envelope and lowering the need for mechanical ventilation heating.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Electrochromic fenestration", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Electrochromic fenestration", "name": "Electrochromic fenestration", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope technologies", "Fenestration" ], "description": "Electrochromic windows are glazing systems that can actively change their transparency when a small electrical voltage is applied. The glass contains several thin layers of electrochromic materials that modify their optical properties when electricity moves ions through the layers. This allows the window to switch between clear and tinted states, controlling both visible light and solar heat entering the building. Unlike thermochromic glazing, which reacts automatically to temperature, electrochromic systems can be precisely controlled through building management systems or user input, allowing dynamic adjustment depending on sunlight conditions and indoor comfort requirements.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Allows buildings to actively control solar heat gains and daylight, helping reduce cooling demand while maintaining indoor comfort.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Extended building materials lifetime", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Extended building materials lifetime", "name": "Extended building materials lifetime", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope materials", "Reducing material losses" ], "description": "Extending the lifetime of building materials focuses on designing buildings so that structural components and materials remain usable for much longer periods and can be reused or adapted to new functions. This approach often relies on modular and reconfigurable building systems that allow spaces to be modified without major structural demolition. For example, interior layouts can be changed from offices to residential spaces, or rooms can be reconfigured for different uses such as meeting areas or co-working spaces. Buildings designed for disassembly allow structural elements, façade components or interior materials to be removed and reused instead of discarded. By keeping materials in use for longer periods, the need for new construction materials and associated energy use can be significantly reduced.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Extending the lifetime of building materials reduces demand for new construction materials and lowers the embodied energy associated with building construction and renovation.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Fabric formwork (building envelope)", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Fabric formwork (building envelope)", "name": "Fabric formwork (building envelope)", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope materials", "Reducing material losses" ], "description": "Fabric formwork is a construction technique that uses flexible membranes instead of rigid wooden or steel moulds to shape concrete elements. The fabric acts as a lightweight form that is tensioned or supported in a frame before concrete is poured. Because the material can deform under the weight of the concrete, it naturally creates curved and structurally efficient shapes that use material only where it is needed. This allows architects and engineers to design columns, walls or slabs with optimised geometry while reducing excess concrete. In many cases, fabric formwork can reduce concrete use by around 35% compared with conventional rigid formwork, while still maintaining structural performance.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Reduces material use and associated embodied energy in building construction through more efficient structural forms.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Funicular floor system", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Funicular floor system", "name": "Funicular floor system", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope materials", "Lightweighting" ], "description": "The funicular floor system is a lightweight concrete floor structure designed to follow the natural flow of structural forces. Instead of a solid slab, the system uses a network of vaults and stiffening ribs that guide loads along curved paths, allowing the structure to carry weight mainly through compression. This geometry significantly reduces the amount of concrete required while maintaining structural strength. In typical designs, the thickness of the slab and ribs is around 20 millimetres, and the voids between structural elements can be filled with lightweight insulating materials. As a result, the system can replace about 70% of the concrete used in conventional floor slabs while improving the thermal performance of the building floor.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Reduces the material and embodied energy associated with floor structures in buildings while maintaining structural performance.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Green roof", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Green roof", "name": "Green roof", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope technologies", "Wall, roof & façade" ], "description": "A green roof is a roofing system partially or fully covered with vegetation installed over a waterproofing and drainage layer. The system typically includes several layers such as a root barrier, drainage elements, growing medium and plants adapted to rooftop conditions. The vegetation and soil layer act as additional insulation and thermal mass, reducing heat transfer through the roof. Green roofs can also absorb part of the solar radiation that would otherwise heat the building surface. In addition to thermal effects, they help retain rainwater, reduce stormwater runoff and create small habitats for urban biodiversity.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Reduces heating and cooling demand in buildings while improving urban climate resilience and stormwater management.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Highly insulating window", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Highly insulating window", "name": "Highly insulating window", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope technologies", "Fenestration" ], "description": "Highly insulating windows are designed to significantly reduce heat transfer between the indoor and outdoor environment. Their performance relies on a combination of technologies such as multiple glazing layers, low-emissivity (low-E) coatings, inert gas filling between panes and thermally insulated frames. Modern high-performance windows can reach R-values of around R-5 to R-7, which is several times higher than conventional single or double glazing. By limiting heat losses in winter and reducing unwanted heat gains in summer, these windows improve the thermal performance of the building envelope while maintaining natural daylight and outdoor visibility.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Reduces heat losses and cooling demand in buildings, improving overall energy efficiency of the building envelope.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Insulation glass coating", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Insulation glass coating", "name": "Insulation glass coating", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope technologies", "Fenestration" ], "description": "Insulating glass coatings, often called low-emissivity (low-E) coatings, are thin metallic layers applied to the surface of window glass to control heat transfer through glazing. These coatings reflect infrared radiation while still allowing visible light to pass through the window. By reflecting heat back toward its source, the coating helps retain indoor heat during cold periods and reduce solar heat gains when placed on the appropriate glazing surface. Low-E coatings are typically applied to double or triple glazing systems and have become a standard component of high-performance windows used in modern buildings.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Improves the thermal performance of windows by reducing unwanted heat transfer, helping lower heating and cooling demand in buildings.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Pre-casting for building construction and renovation", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Pre-casting for building construction and renovation", "name": "Pre-casting for building construction and renovation", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope materials", "Reducing material losses" ], "description": "Precasting is a construction method in which structural elements are manufactured in reusable moulds within a controlled factory environment before being transported to the construction site for assembly. Typical precast components include walls, beams, columns, slabs and façade elements. Producing these elements in factories allows better control of material quality, curing conditions and dimensional accuracy compared with on-site casting. The components are then assembled on site to form the building structure. This approach allows faster construction and enables the production of standardized or modular elements that can be used in many different building designs. Precast concrete elements also provide good structural strength, durability and resistance to weather conditions.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Improves efficiency in building construction by enabling modular construction methods and reducing material waste compared with traditional on-site construction.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Reflective façade", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Reflective façade", "name": "Reflective façade", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope technologies", "Wall, roof & façade" ], "description": "Reflective façades are exterior building surfaces designed to reflect a significant portion of incoming solar radiation rather than absorbing it. This is typically achieved through specialised coatings, reflective paints or construction materials engineered to reflect infrared radiation while maintaining the desired visible colour of the façade. By reflecting part of the solar energy, the exterior surface remains cooler and less heat is transferred into the building interior. Reflective façades are particularly useful in warm climates or buildings with high solar exposure, where solar radiation can strongly increase cooling demand.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Reduces solar heat gains in buildings, helping lower cooling demand and improving thermal comfort in warm climates.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Structural insulated panel", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Structural insulated panel", "name": "Structural insulated panel", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope technologies", "Wall, roof & façade" ], "description": "Structural insulated panels (SIPs) are prefabricated building components made of two structural boards, often oriented strand board (OSB), bonded to a rigid insulating core such as expanded polystyrene, polyurethane or polyisocyanurate foam. The resulting panel acts both as a structural element and as insulation, allowing walls, roofs and floors to be assembled quickly while providing high thermal performance. Because the insulation layer is continuous across the panel, SIP construction can significantly reduce thermal bridges that commonly occur in conventional framed walls. These panels are widely used in high-performance buildings and prefabricated housing where rapid construction and strong envelope performance are required.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Improves the thermal performance of building envelopes and helps reduce heating and cooling demand in buildings.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Thin shelled concrete", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Thin shelled concrete", "name": "Thin shelled concrete", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope materials", "Lightweighting" ], "description": "Thin shelled concrete structures are lightweight concrete roofs or structural elements designed with curved or shell-like geometries that efficiently distribute loads. Instead of relying on thick structural slabs, the shell shape allows the structure to carry loads primarily through compression, which significantly reduces the amount of concrete required. In building applications, the concrete shell can be integrated with other elements such as hydronic radiant heating and cooling systems or thin-film photovoltaic layers. The thickness of these concrete shells typically ranges from about 3 to 30 centimetres, depending on the structural design and span of the roof.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Reduces material use in building construction by relying on structurally efficient geometries that require less concrete than conventional slabs.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Transpiring wall-mounted solar heat collectors", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Transpiring wall-mounted solar heat collectors", "name": "Transpiring wall-mounted solar heat collectors", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope technologies", "Solar thermal technologies for wall, roof & façades" ], "description": "Transpiring solar collectors are façade-mounted systems made of perforated metal panels installed a short distance from the exterior wall of a building. Solar radiation heats the surface of the dark metal panel, and ventilation air is drawn through the small perforations in the panel into the cavity behind it. As the air passes through the heated surface, it absorbs solar heat before entering the building’s ventilation system. During warm periods the heated air can be vented outside instead of entering the building. These systems can convert up to about 80% of incoming solar radiation into useful warm air, making them an efficient method for preheating ventilation air in commercial and industrial buildings.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Reduces heating demand in buildings by using solar energy to preheat ventilation air before it enters the building.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Trombe wall", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Trombe wall", "name": "Trombe wall", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope technologies", "Solar thermal technologies for wall, roof & façades" ], "description": "A Trombe wall is a passive solar heating system integrated into the building envelope. It consists of a high thermal mass wall, typically made of concrete, stone or masonry, placed behind a layer of exterior glazing with a small air gap between them. Solar radiation passes through the glass and heats the wall surface. The wall slowly absorbs and stores this heat during the day and releases it toward the interior of the building over several hours, helping maintain indoor temperatures after sunset. Some designs include vents that allow warm air to circulate naturally between the wall and the room. Variations of the concept include water-based systems, composite walls and hybrid designs that integrate photovoltaic elements.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Uses passive solar energy to reduce heating demand in buildings without requiring mechanical systems or additional energy input.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Vacuum insulated panel", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Vacuum insulated panel", "name": "Vacuum insulated panel", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Design and envelope", "Building envelope technologies", "Wall, roof & façade" ], "description": "Vacuum insulated panels (VIPs) are high-performance insulation materials made of a porous core sealed inside an airtight envelope from which the air has been removed. The vacuum significantly reduces heat transfer by eliminating air conduction and convection within the panel. The core material, often silica-based, maintains the structural integrity of the panel while limiting heat conduction through the solid structure. Thanks to this configuration, vacuum insulated panels can achieve thermal resistance values 5 to 10 times higher than conventional insulation materials for the same thickness, allowing very thin yet highly insulating building components.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Provides very high insulation performance in building envelopes while minimizing the thickness of walls or roofs, helping reduce heating and cooling demand.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Lithium-ion storage battery", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Lithium-ion storage battery", "name": "Lithium-ion storage battery", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Electrochemical storage" ], "description": "Lithium-ion batteries, due to their high performance and rapidly dropping costs, are already used for many power stationary applications, with demand rocketing in 2023 and 2024. In the power sector, their modularity allows them to provide a range of services from frequency regulation and ancillary services, to transmission and distribution investment deferral. Battery energy storage systems (BESS) are suited for applications ranging from milli-seconds to several hours (intra-day), but their relatively high cost currently make them not fit for longer duration storage, such as across days, weeks, or seasonal storage. Spillover effects from the transport sector are driving technology development towards higher densities, while power sector applications are benefiting from idling capacity or access to less performing designs. BESS prioritise cost and cycle life. As a result, the global BESS market is dominated by lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries, which are less expensive and offer longer lifetimes than their lithium nickel cobalt manganese (NCM) counterparts.", "supplyChain": [ "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "B", "B", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "A higher integration of variable renewable energy will increase the need for flexibility and energy storage. The high manufacturing capacity, production experience, versatility, and speed of deployment of lithium-ion batteries make them the most likely choice for short-term stationary storage addition in the coming years.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Metal-air storage battery", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Metal-air storage battery", "name": "Metal-air storage battery", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Electrochemical storage" ], "description": "Metal-air batteries consist of a metal anode in a suitable electrolyte and an air cathode, which means having an electrode whose role is oxidizing or reducing the oxygen in the air during charge or discharge. The most well-known and advanced metal-air batteries are zinc-air, iron-air, and lithium-air batteries, but other metals such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, or aluminium could be used. Metal-air batteries tend to have longer storage and discharge times because of the lower kinetics (reaction speed) to reduce or oxidize the oxygen. This feature makes those batteries less suited for applications requiring large powers, such as the acceleration need of an electric vehicle, but well adapted for mid- to long-term energy storage, when a relatively constant amount of energy needs to be dispatched over relatively long period of time, such as several hours or days.", "supplyChain": [ "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "A higher integration of variable renewable energy will increase the need for flexibility and energy storage. While lithium-ion batteries have been largely deployed and are suited for short-term (<10 h) storage, longer-term storage will also be required. Metal-air, and in particular iron-air, are well suited for several hours or multi-day storage, representing a good complement to lithium-ion or sodium-ion batteries and enabling a larger share of intermittent renewables in the power grid.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Redox flow storage battery", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Redox flow storage battery", "name": "Redox flow storage battery", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Electrochemical storage" ], "description": "Redox flow batteries use a liquid solution to store energy, rather than storing it in a solid material like lithium-ion batteries. Flow batteries consist of two electrolytes contained in tanks separated by an ion-selective membrane that allows only certain ions to pass through during the charging or discharging process. Negative and positive electrolytes contain dissolved atoms or molecules that can react electrochemically to release or store electrons. During discharge, an electron is released from the anode (negative electrolyte) via an oxidation reaction, travels through an external circuit and is accepted at the cathode (positive electrolyte) via a reduction reaction. During charging, the opposite flows and reactions take place as the battery stores energy. The separation of the energy (the electrolyte tanks) and power (the membrane) components allows a tailored design: larger storage tanks increase energy storage capacity, while accelerated fluid flows or electrode and membrane surface increase the battery power. Flow batteries are less sensitive to deep discharge and can store energy for longer than lithium-ion battery, as chemicals as physically separated in two distinct tanks (containing the positive and negative electrolyte, respectively). However, they also have a lower volumetric energy density, limiting applications in electro mobility. Several chemistries can be used, but the most mature is the vanadium redox battery (VRB), which uses vanadium ions as the charge carrier. However, alternatives are being investigated, such as organic redox-flow batteries.", "supplyChain": [ "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "A higher integration of variable renewable energy will increase the need for flexibility and energy storage. While lithium-ion batteries have been largely deployed and are suited for short-term (<10 h) storage, longer-term storage will also be required. Redox-flow batteries are suited for several hours or multi-day storage, representing a good complement to lithium-ion or sodium-ion batteries and enabling a larger share of intermittent renewables in the power grid. In addition, redox-flow batteries are modular and can separately control power (which depends on how fast the liquid in the tank is pumped into the electrodes, among other factors) and energy (how large the tanks are), which can be an important advantage to better fit the power grid requirements.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Sodium-ion storage battery", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Sodium-ion storage battery", "name": "Sodium-ion storage battery", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Electrochemical storage" ], "description": "Sodium-ion batteries are a type of battery with a cathode consisting of a sodium-based material, an anode (not necessary a sodium-based material) and a liquid electrolyte consisting of sodium salts with small amounts of additives. During charging, sodium ions move from the cathode to the anode while electrons move through the external circuit. The reverse process occurs during discharge. Sodium-ion batteries are similar in structure to lithium-ion batteries, but the lithium is replaced by sodium compounds. The main advantage of sodium-ion batteries is the natural abundance of sodium, but challenges include low energy density and shorter cycle life, albeit exact characteristics depend on the exact sodium-ion battery chemistry employed. For applications where energy density is not critical, such as stationary battery energy storage or short-range mobility, sodium-ion batteries could be an attractive alternative, especially during times of high lithium prices.", "supplyChain": [ "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 6, 7, 7, 7, 8, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "A higher integration of variable renewable energy will increase the need for flexibility and energy storage, and sodium-ion batteries can complement lithium-ion batteries for intra-day storage.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Zinc-manganese oxide storage battery", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Zinc-manganese oxide storage battery", "name": "Zinc-manganese oxide storage battery", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Electrochemical storage" ], "description": "Zinc-Manganese Oxide Batteries (Zn-MnO2) use acqueous (often alkaline) electrolyte which is being developed as a cost-effective electrochemical storage technology for grid applications. This battery is mainly targeted for grid-scale energy storage because of its high theoretical energy density rivalling lithium-ion systems (~400 Wh\/L), relatively safe aqueous electrolyte, established supply chain, and projected costs below USD 100\/kWh at scale. \nThe use of water as an electrolyte in Zinc-Manganese batteries makes them significantly safer than other forms of electrochemical cells. These batteries do not catch fire like lithium-ion batteries and offer improved intrinsic safety over lithium-ion batteries. Zinc is cheaper than cobalt and lithium so manufacturing and using this battery can also reduce the cost of energy storage.", "supplyChain": [ "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Advanced hydrometallurgy in recycling processes", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Advanced hydrometallurgy in recycling processes", "name": "Advanced hydrometallurgy in recycling processes", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "E-waste recycling", "Cross-cutting recycling", "Processing" ], "description": "This next-generation leaching and solvent extraction technique is optimised for critical minerals. It relies on selective leaching and advanced separation membranes for improved recovery rate and lowered chemical consumption compared to regular hydrometallurgy.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Hydrometallurgy, alone or combined with pyrometallurgical methods, is the leading technology for recycling lithium-ion batteries. This will be key to reducing primary demand for critical minerals over the long term, particularly from 2035 onwards, when end-of-life battery feedstock is expected to grow rapidly.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Automatic battery recycling", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Automatic battery recycling", "name": "Automatic battery recycling", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "E-waste recycling", "Battery recycling", "Pre-processing and disassembly" ], "description": "Having machines separating batteries reduces labour costs as well as the risks encountered by workers. This requires complex machines and AI as the heterogeneity of battery design and lack of design for disassembly increases the complexity and is a barrier to this process.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Battery recycling" ], "trl": [ 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Battery direct recycling", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Battery direct recycling", "name": "Battery direct recycling", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "E-waste recycling", "Battery recycling", "Processing" ], "description": "Direct recycling (also called direct regeneration, direct recovery or relithiation-based recycling) aims to recover electrode materials (cathode\/anode) and reactivating it, for example by re-lithiation for the cathode, so that it becomes reusable in a new battery. The cathode is the single most valuable components in battery cells, accounting for approximately 30-40% of its production cost (2024 world battery chemistry average). One of the main issues is that this process needs to be tailored for each battery type and requires access to the single electrodes, which is relatively simple for manufacturing scraps but difficult for end of life batteries.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Battery recycling" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 4, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Direct recycling can lower the energy requirement and increase the efficiency of lithium-ion battery recycling.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Battery passport", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Battery passport", "name": "Battery passport", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "E-waste recycling", "Battery recycling", "Processing" ], "description": "The battery passport allows for tracking of a battery from production to end of life. Barcodes on the battery and its components allow for access to information about the battery composition, use and location. This can be useful for establishing the battery carbon footprint, improving battery tracking and maximising recycling.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Battery recycling" ], "trl": [ 2, 3, 3, 5, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Tracking and tracing batteries throughout their lifecycle - from environmental impacts to use and end-of-life - are essential to inform policymakers and the public, and the battery passport can largely support this goal. These tools help reduce negative impacts and maximise benefits of batteries while facilitating their recovery for recycling.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Biological metals reclamation", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Biological metals reclamation", "name": "Biological metals reclamation", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "E-waste recycling", "Cross-cutting recycling", "Processing" ], "description": "This technology makes use of microorganisms to help in the recovery of metals (Li, CO, Cu, Ni, Mn, Al). The efficiency can even be higher than other methods, but the time required is much longer than hydrometallurgical methods. Already in used by the mining industry.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 4, 4, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Biological reclamation can enables new sources of critical minerals.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Cables' copper incineration", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Cables' copper incineration", "name": "Cables' copper incineration", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "E-waste recycling", "Cable recycling" ], "description": "Copper is recovered by burning the cables. The quality of recovered copper is low, and toxic gasses are emitted. Formerly used a lot but it is now forbidden in many countries.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", "C", "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Cables' plastic layer removal with high-pressure water", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Cables' plastic layer removal with high-pressure water", "name": "Cables' plastic layer removal with high-pressure water", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "E-waste recycling", "Cable recycling" ], "description": "High-pressure water jets remove the plastic layer surrounding copper cables. This method has the advantage of not generating waste.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Chemical recycling of cables", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Chemical recycling of cables", "name": "Chemical recycling of cables", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "E-waste recycling", "Cable recycling" ], "description": "A leaching solution dissolves the plastic surrounding cables to liberate the copper therein. It is useful for non-uniformly sized cables but produces waste.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Cryogenic grinding", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Cryogenic grinding", "name": "Cryogenic grinding", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "E-waste recycling", "Cross-cutting recycling", "Pre-processing and disassembly" ], "description": "Freezing helps in grinding elements in a fine dust. Liquid nitrogen is often used to maintain a temperature below -100 degrees Celsius. The so created fine milling is mostly composed of single phase particles, which are easier to recycle. ", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This method can improve the yield of recycling processes, leading to a better circularity of materials embedded in electronics. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Electrochemical recovery systems", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Electrochemical recovery systems", "name": "Electrochemical recovery systems", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "E-waste recycling", "Cross-cutting recycling", "Processing" ], "description": "Advanced electrowinning and electrorefining processes designed specifically for recovering high-purity metals from complex, low-concentration solutions. This technology applies to secondary and primary metal production.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 6, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, "B", null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Electrochemical recovery can increase the recycling efficiency for several metals and materials, including those in lithium-ion batteries.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "EV battery reuse in BESS", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > EV battery reuse in BESS", "name": "EV battery reuse in BESS", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "E-waste recycling", "Battery recycling", "Pre-processing and disassembly" ], "description": "EV batteries reaching the end of their first life can be repurposed for use in home chargers or stationary battery energy storage systems. This approach allows batteries to deliver their full potential before final recycling. However, several challenges remain. These include the lack of standardisation in EV battery design, which complicates disassembly and repurposing; the need for reliable diagnostic tools to assess degradation and remaining lifetime; and technologies to isolate or replace underperforming cells. Additional barriers include the absence of clear insurance and legal frameworks defining responsibilities during second-life use, and the high cost of repackaging EV battery cells, modules or packs for stationary applications. Advances in these areas are essential to make battery reuse as seamless, competitive and dependable as purchasing new batteries, whose costs continue to decline. Competition from new batteries specifically optimised for stationary storage - often cheaper than repurposed EV batteries - could further limit second-life applications. Moreover, the growing second-hand EV market, which can tolerate lower performance, may extend EV battery use in vehicles rather than in stationary systems.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Battery recycling" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "EV battery being repurposed for battery storage installations might extend the life of EV batteries, shifting part of the demand for primary batteries.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrometallurgical battery recycling", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Hydrometallurgical battery recycling", "name": "Hydrometallurgical battery recycling", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "E-waste recycling", "Battery recycling", "Processing" ], "description": "Hydrometallurgy involves chemical leaching and purification processes to precipitate out individual metal products. Hydrometallurgy can be used to produce battery-grade materials, for instance battery-grade lithium carbonate or nickel sulphates, or it can be used to produce intermediate products depending on the reagents used and the level of processing implemented. Advanced hydrometallurgical routes are being developed in industry which can recover the graphite; however, these processes are in their infancy compared with recovering lithium, nickel and cobalt. The primary inputs for hydrometallurgy are black mass Recycling of Critical Minerals Outlook for critical minerals recycling or the intermediate products formed from pyrometallurgy; battery cells or modules \ncannot be used directly. The black mass feedstock typically has restrictions on the impurity level to be used as an input, for instance copper and aluminium.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Battery recycling" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", "C", "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Hydrometallurgy, alone or combined with pyrometallurgical methods, is the leading technology for recycling lithium-ion batteries. This will be key to reducing primary demand for critical minerals over the long term, particularly from 2035 onwards, when end-of-life battery feedstock is expected to grow rapidly.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Mechanical stripping or crushing of cables", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Mechanical stripping or crushing of cables", "name": "Mechanical stripping or crushing of cables", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "E-waste recycling", "Cable recycling" ], "description": "This method strips the plastics off the cables by blades or cables, these parts are then crushed into particles then separated between plastic and copper. It is easy to implement and low cost, and so it is largely adopted, especially in regulated markets limiting or not authorizing the use of cable incineration.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", "C", "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Plasma arc recycling", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Plasma arc recycling", "name": "Plasma arc recycling", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "E-waste recycling", "Cross-cutting recycling", "Processing" ], "description": "A plasma arc is used to heat waste at a high temperature to selectively recover targeted elements. This allows for high recovery rate, even for complex feedstock such as electronic waste.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, "C", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Pyrometallurgical-smelting for battery recycling", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Pyrometallurgical-smelting for battery recycling", "name": "Pyrometallurgical-smelting for battery recycling", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "E-waste recycling", "Battery recycling", "Processing" ], "description": "Pyrometallurgy is an established technique for metal extraction and purification, which involves smelting the battery or material in a high-temperature oven, recovering a fraction of the metals as a metal alloy and the remainder of the metals as oxides (slag). The primary recoverable metals are in the form of an alloy (for a lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide [NMC] chemistry including cobalt, nickel and copper) while others are contained in a slag (such as aluminium, lithium and silicon). Therefore, further hydrometallurgy processing is required to recover the individual metals or battery-grade salts. The removal of several key impurities during the pyrometallurgical smelting process, however, can enable simpler and shorter hydrometallurgy processing. Recovering lithium from the slag is possible using hydrometallurgical processes; however, the yield is typically lower than the nickel and cobalt from the alloy. In pyrometallurgy all the carbon from the graphite is burnt and thus cannot be recovered. Pyrometallurgy requires minimal pretreatment, so battery cells, modules and black mass may be used directly as inputs. ", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Battery recycling" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", "C", "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Pyrometallurigal, albeit less widely employed than hydrometallurgical methods, is used to recycle lithium-ion batteries, which will be key to reducing primary demand for critical minerals over the long term, particularly from 2035 onwards, when end-of-life battery feedstock is expected to grow rapidly.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Supercritical carbon dioxide uses for metal recovery", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Supercritical carbon dioxide uses for metal recovery", "name": "Supercritical carbon dioxide uses for metal recovery", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "E-waste recycling", "Cross-cutting recycling", "Pre-processing and disassembly" ], "description": "Instead on relying on acids to leach metals from printed circuits, supercritical CO2 and co-solvents are used to recover metals from complex structures. This method is more rapid and generates less waste compared to acid leaching.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Thermal decomposition of cables", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Thermal decomposition of cables", "name": "Thermal decomposition of cables", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "E-waste recycling", "Cable recycling" ], "description": "This method consists in placing cables in a warm environment with no oxygen. The plastic degrades into organic fuel which can be recovered. The method is highly efficient and no waste is generated.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Use of a pyro\/hydro-metallurgy combo for battery recycling", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Use of a pyro\/hydro-metallurgy combo for battery recycling", "name": "Use of a pyro\/hydro-metallurgy combo for battery recycling", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "E-waste recycling", "Battery recycling", "Processing" ], "description": "The hybrid pyro-hydro recycling process combines high-temperature treatment to safely break down used batteries with chemical refining to recover and purify key metals for reuse. It offers strong safety performance, flexibility for mixed battery types, and high-quality recovered materials. However, it also involves high energy consumption, potential lithium losses, and greater operational complexity and cost.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Battery recycling" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Hydrometallurgy, alone or combined with pyrometallurgical methods, is the leading technology for recycling lithium-ion batteries. This will be key to reducing primary demand for critical minerals over the long term, particularly from 2035 onwards, when end-of-life battery feedstock is expected to grow rapidly.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Virtual model of the entire recycling process", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Virtual model of the entire recycling process", "name": "Virtual model of the entire recycling process", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "E-waste recycling", "Cross-cutting recycling", "Processing" ], "description": "The development of a virtual model of the entire recycling process allows for real-time optimisation and predictive maintenance.", "supplyChain": [ "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Fuel fabrication: TRISO fuel for high temperature reactors", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Fuel fabrication: TRISO fuel for high temperature reactors", "name": "Fuel fabrication: TRISO fuel for high temperature reactors", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fission", "Nuclear fuel cycles", "Front-end of the fuel cycle" ], "description": "Fabricating nuclear fuel consists of producing fuel assemblies from enriched UF6 gas. The fuel assembly is the final form of the fuel that will be inserted into the reactor for the reaction to take place. In conventional and mature fuel assembly fabrication process, enriched uranium is transported in gaseous form (UF6) to the fuel assembly manufacturing site. The gas is converted back into UO2 powder (now enriched), which is then compressed into fuel pellets (1 cm long), which are then stacked into fuel rods (several meter long). A fuel assembly consists of several fuel rods and a reactor contains several hundred fuel assemblies.\n\nThe TRISO (tristructural-isotropic) fuel is a type of fuel that is necessary for the proper functioning of new high-temperature reactors (this fuel is stable up to very high temperatures) but requires a specific fabrication process - DESCRIBE HERE -, for which China controls the only commercial plant. Other countries interested in this type of reactor are seeking to close this gap in fabrication capacity, to reduce their dependence on China.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 6, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "A diversified supply chain for TRISO fuel will be necessary for the global deployment of high-temperature reactors, which are a significant lever for decarbonisation, particularly thanks to associated modular and industrial applications. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Fuel reprocessing (PUREX process and new advanced techniques)", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Fuel reprocessing (PUREX process and new advanced techniques)", "name": "Fuel reprocessing (PUREX process and new advanced techniques)", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fission", "Nuclear fuel cycles", "Back-end of the fuel cycle" ], "description": "Reprocessing used nuclear fuel aim to recover plutonium and uranium for additional energy production and to reduce the volume of high-level waste. The PUREX (Plutonium Uranium Extraction) process is the industrial standard for reprocessing spent nuclear fuel. It uses hydrometallurgical solvent extraction to separate uranium and plutonium, from fission products (plutonium is naturally produced in nuclear reactors when uranium-238 absorbs neutrons). Plutonium is later separated from uranium, and both are converted to oxides (PuO2 and UO3\/UO2) for reuse in MOX fuel (to be used in LWRs or fast reactors) or re-enrichment. The remaining high-level waste (3% of original fuel), containing fission products and minor actinides, is vitrified in borosilicate glass for long-term storage.\n\nThe need to adapt reprocessing techniques to the fuel cycles of Generation IV fast reactors, to soon renew certain old reprocessing units (particularly in France) and to enable greater proliferation resistance (plutonium) has led to significant investments and the development of alternatives to the PUREX process, most of which can be seen as advances in PUREX rather than disruptive processes, but Electrometallurgical Pyroprocessing tehchniques could bring some disruptions.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Advanced fuel reprocessing is vital for a circular nuclear economy: it recovers up to 96% of unused energy from spent fuel, drastically extending uranium resources and regional supply chains resilience.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Generation III\/III+ large reactors", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Generation III\/III+ large reactors", "name": "Generation III\/III+ large reactors", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fission", "Large reactors" ], "description": "Generation III and III+ nuclear fission reactors represent the latest deployed evolution in nuclear power technology, building on lessons from previous generations and major incidents, from internal and external threats. These advanced reactors emphasize enhanced safety and security, incorporating reinforced containment structures and passive safety systems that rely on natural forces such as gravity and convection, reducing dependence on active controls and external power. The older Generation III reactor have been operating in Japan since 1996, and this generation will be operational until at least the 2070s. \n\nThe experience gained with this generation has begun to pave the way for the development of SMRs: Designs are standardized to streamline licensing and construction, modular assembly for faster build times. These reactors also have higher fuel efficiency through increased burn-up rates and extended operating lifespans of up to 60 years. Many Generation III reactors are also designed for load-following, enabling flexible power output adjustments to support grid stability. \n\nAlmost all reactors from this generation are water cooled (mostly PWRs and BWRs), use thermal neutron spectrum (neutrons emitted by fission reactions are slowed down by a moderator (water or graphite) to facilitate the fission of Uranium 235) and use a used primarily enriched uranium (3–5% U-235) oxide in the forms of pellets arranged in fuel rods as fuel.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Generation III reactors will undoubtedly play the biggest role in decarbonising the energy mix through nuclear power: Generation II reactors will soon reach the end of their lifespan, and the development timelines for Generation IV reactors are too long to envisage them playing a significant role in achieving Net Zero by 2050, for which installed nuclear capacity will need to be doubled.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Generation IV large reactors : fast neutron spectrum", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Generation IV large reactors : fast neutron spectrum", "name": "Generation IV large reactors : fast neutron spectrum", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fission", "Large reactors" ], "description": "If Generation III\/III+ reactors were a continuation of those of Generation II, Generation IV reactors represent a radical technological shift from current designs and are expected to achieve industrial deployment around 2050. These systems aim to meet stringent criteria for sustainability, safety and economic competitiveness. These designs operate at significantly higher temperatures (500°C to 1000°C) than today’s reactors, enabling applications such as thermochemical hydrogen production and most of them employ closed fuel cycles. \n\nAn international collaboration, the Generation IV International Forum (GIF), launched in 2001 and now comprising 13 member countries plus Euratom, coordinates R&D efforts – supported by investments exceeding USD 6 billion over 15 years, primarily funded by Japan, France, and the United States – and selected six advanced technologies for further development, three of them are fast neutron reactors, using liquid metals (sodium or lead, SFRs and LFRs) or gas (GFRs) as coolant. \n\nUnlike conventional thermal neutron spectrum reactors, these fast reactors do not use a moderator to slow down the neutrons emitted by the fission reaction, enabling the breeding of new fuel from unenriched uranium, but complicating the process, increasing costs and posing new challenges in terms of safety. The R&D behind these designs is not new, but the designs developed in this fourth generation mark a turning point.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The timeline for the development and deployment of large Generation IV reactors seems too long to have a significant impact on the electricity mix by 2050, but their small-scale modular applications (SMRs) could be commercialised sooner.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Generation IV large reactors : thermal neutron spectrum", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Generation IV large reactors : thermal neutron spectrum", "name": "Generation IV large reactors : thermal neutron spectrum", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fission", "Large reactors" ], "description": "If Generation III\/III+ reactors were a continuation of those of Generation II, Generation IV reactors represent a radical technological shift from current designs and are expected to achieve industrial deployment around 2050. These systems aim to meet stringent criteria for sustainability, safety and economic competitiveness. These designs operate at significantly higher temperatures (500°C to 1000°C) than today’s reactors, enabling applications such as thermochemical hydrogen production and most of them employ closed fuel cycles. \n\nAn international collaboration, the Generation IV International Forum (GIF), launched in 2001 and now comprising 13 member countries plus Euratom, coordinates R&D efforts – supported by investments exceeding USD billion over 15 years, primarily funded by Japan, France, and the United States – and selected six advanced technologies for further development, three of them are primilary using conventional thermal neutron spectrum (neutrons emitted by fission reactions are slowed down by a moderator (water or graphite) to facilitate the fission of Uranium 235): the Super Critical Water Reactors (SCWRs, cooled by water, operating at pression and temperature above the related crirical point), some Molten Salt Reactors (MSRs, with varying designs: for example: FHRs use a mix between MSRs and HTGRs use fluoride salts as a coolant and TRISO fuel, and TMSR, using Thorium fuel), and the Very High Temperature Reactors (VHTRs, helium coolant, TRISO fuel with potential application in several industries, but not designed for large scale applications). ", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The timeline for the development and deployment of large Generation IV reactors seems too long to have a significant impact on the electricity mix by 2050, but their small-scale modular applications (SMRs) could be commercialised sooner.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "HALEU fuel cycle", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > HALEU fuel cycle", "name": "HALEU fuel cycle", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fission", "Nuclear fuel cycles" ], "description": "Natural uranium contains less than 1% of fissile U-235, with the rest being non-fissile U-238. To fuel nuclear reactors, uranium must be enriched to increase the U-235 concentration. While current fleets operate below the 5% threshold, next-generation designs (including 50% of SMR designs in development) demand concentrations from 5% to 20%. This shift necessitates the development of supply chains for new fuel categories: LEU+ (Low-Enriched Uranium +, 5%–10%) for enhancing close-to-conventional plant efficiency and HALEU (High-Assay Low-Enriched Uranium. 10%–20%) for more advanced reactors. It requires specialized conversion and enrichment facilities (using existing or emerging technologies), new transport and waste management infrastructure (for example, HALEU’s higher reactivity demands smaller, criticality-safe transport cylinders and dedicated deconversion lines), but also modified regulations and licensing regimes, considering increased security requirements. HALEU remains commercially scarce, with production currently dominated by Russia and China. Several IEA member countries are investing billions into domestic infrastructure, in order to end this reliance.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Secure and diversified supply chains for HALEU fuel will be key to the deployment of next-generation reactors, a lever for decarbonisation and energy security.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Heat-pipe cooled SMRs", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Heat-pipe cooled SMRs", "name": "Heat-pipe cooled SMRs", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fission", "Small modular reactors" ], "description": "A Small Modular Reactor (SMR) is a compact nuclear reactor (typically under 300 MWe) designed for factory production and on-site assembling. SMRs could offer faster construction than traditional reactors, and more flexible deployment. They are particularly suited to grid application, in remote or not flexible enough areas, and to specific industrial applications (heat production). Although over 130 SMR designs are under development worldwide, with some of under construction or already operational, not a single one has yet been replicated or deployed on a large scale. A heat‑pipe SMR passively transfers core heat through sealed heat pipes to a power cycle; these pipes typically use alkali metal working fluids such as sodium or potassium as coolants. This type of design could be suitable for microreactors and space applications.\n\n", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "SMRs are an important lever for decarbonization, enabling faster deployment of nuclear power and electrification of key sectors (industry, hydrogen production, CCUS). They can also help improve grid flexibility, for example by being deployed in certain isolated regions or near data centers.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "High-temperature gas-cooled SMR", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > High-temperature gas-cooled SMR", "name": "High-temperature gas-cooled SMR", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fission", "Small modular reactors" ], "description": "A Small Modular Reactor (SMR) is a compact nuclear reactor (typically under 300 MWe) designed for factory production and on-site assembling. SMRs could offer faster construction than traditional reactors, and more flexible deployment. They are particularly suited to grid application, in remote or not flexible enough areas, and to specific industrial applications (heat production). Although over 130 SMR designs are under development worldwide, with some of under construction or already operational, not a single one has yet been replicated or deployed on a large scale.\n\nHigh-temperature gas cooled small modural reactors use helium gas as the coolant and operates at very high temperatures (typically 700–900 °C, sometimes up to 950–1000 °C), enhancing thermal efficiency improvments, and specific industrial applications. These reactors generally use TRISO fuel and can be based on conventional Rankine cycles or Brayton cycles. At present, no high-temperature gas-cooled SMR design has been replicated and deployed on a large scale, but one have been demonstrated and is currently commercialy operated in China.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 6, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "SMRs are an important lever for decarbonization, enabling faster deployment of nuclear power and electrification of key sectors (industry, hydrogen production, CCUS). They can also help improve grid flexibility, for example by being deployed in certain isolated regions or near data centers.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Lead fast SMR", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Lead fast SMR", "name": "Lead fast SMR", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fission", "Small modular reactors" ], "description": "A Small Modular Reactor (SMR) is a compact nuclear reactor (typically under 300 MWe) designed for factory production and on-site assembling. SMRs could offer faster construction than traditional reactors, and more flexible deployment. They are particularly suited to grid application, in remote or not flexible enough areas, and to specific industrial applications (heat production). Although over 130 SMR designs are under development worldwide, with some of under construction or already operational, not a single one has yet been replicated or deployed on a large scale.\n\nLead Fast SMRs use liquid lead or lead-bismuth alloy as a coolant, and a fast neutron spectrum (no moderator to slow down the neutrons emitted by the fission reaction, enabling the breeding of new fuel from unenriched uranium). Lead, thanks to it high boiling point, has many advantages, such as the ability to provide good radiation shielding. First commercialised lead fast SMRs should operates at arround 500°C, but the operational temperature could reach 800°C, enabling applications in different industries (eg Hydrogen production).\n\nAt present, no lead fast SMR design has been demonstrated. Russia exploited in the 1960s Pb-Bi-cooled nuclear submarines, and advanced exeriments were carried out on land in Japan, but the results of these experiments are not totally transferable to small modular designing. ", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "SMRs are an important lever for decarbonization, enabling faster deployment of nuclear power and electrification of key sectors (industry, hydrogen production, CCUS). They can also help improve grid flexibility, for example by being deployed in certain isolated regions or near data centers.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Molten salt SMR", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Molten salt SMR", "name": "Molten salt SMR", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fission", "Small modular reactors" ], "description": "A Small Modular Reactor (SMR) is a compact nuclear reactor (typically under 300 MWe) designed for factory production and on-site assembling. SMRs could offer faster construction than traditional reactors, and more flexible deployment. They are particularly suited to grid application, in remote or not flexible enough areas, and to specific industrial applications (heat production). Although over 130 SMR designs are under development worldwide, with some of under construction or already operational, not a single one has yet been replicated or deployed on a large scale.\n\nIn molten salt SMRs, molten salts serve simultaneously as the coolant, the moderator, and the fuel medium. Some design use fast neutron spectrum, other use a thermal one and other could use mix thermal\/fast one. These reactors could operate at higher temperature than in conventional reactors. No molten salt SMRs have begun construction, all are still in the design phase. In the 1960s, two pilot reactors have been successfully operated experimentally in the United States, but without focusing on a reproducible small and modular design.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "SMRs are an important lever for decarbonization, enabling faster deployment of nuclear power and electrification of key sectors (industry, hydrogen production, CCUS). They can also help improve grid flexibility, for example by being deployed in certain isolated regions or near data centers.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Radioactive waste disposal", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Radioactive waste disposal", "name": "Radioactive waste disposal", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fission", "Nuclear fuel cycles", "Back-end of the fuel cycle" ], "description": "Radioactive waste disposal is the permanent, final isolation of uranium-derived waste from the biosphere, typically in deep geological repositories. Unlike storage, which is a temporary, retrievable and already deployed solution requiring active monitoring, disposal ensures long-term safety without human intervention, but the necessary techniques are not yet fully developed. Waste is categorized by activity: Low-Level (requires minimal shielding, buried in near-surface repositories), Intermediate-Level (requires significant shielding, and disposal in specialized engineered facilities at depths of dozens to hundreds of meters.), and High-Level (necessitates active cooling in water pools for years, followed by vitrification, and final disposal in Deep Geological Repositories, 500+ meters underground, to isolate it for 100,000+ years). Low-level wate disposal has been in routine industrial operation for decades, Intermediate-waste disposal processes are being actively deployed in several countries, but processes for High-Level wate disposal are not yet commercialy available, but first final repositories are being built in Scandinavia.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Mature processes for the disposal of all types of radioactive waste are necessary for nuclear power to become a backbone of a decarbonized global economy, particularly as the world strives to triple its nuclear capacity by 2050.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Sodium fast SMR", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Sodium fast SMR", "name": "Sodium fast SMR", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fission", "Small modular reactors" ], "description": "A Small Modular Reactor (SMR) is a compact nuclear reactor (typically under 300 MWe) designed for factory production and on-site assembling. SMRs could offer faster construction than traditional reactors, and more flexible deployment. They are particularly suited to grid application, in remote or not flexible enough areas, and to specific industrial applications (heat production). Although over 130 SMR designs are under development worldwide, with some of under construction or already operational, not a single one has yet been replicated or deployed on a large scale.\n\nSodium Fast SMRs use liquid sodium as a coolant, and a fast neutron spectrum (no moderator to slow down the neutrons emitted by the fission reaction, enabling the breeding of new fuel from unenriched uranium). They have a greater thermal efficiency than conventional reactors, and can be operated in low-pressure conditions, in compact settings, thanks to the specific proprieties of the sodium coolant.\n\nAt present, no Sodium Fast SMR design has been demonstrated and even less replicated and deployed on a large scale, but some Sodium Fast Reactors, not intended for modular applications, have been successfuly connected to the grid in first-of-a-kind projects of less than 300MWe. The future development of reactors with small modular capabilities can benefit from the experience yield by these operated reactors. ", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "SMRs are an important lever for decarbonization, enabling faster deployment of nuclear power and electrification of key sectors (industry, hydrogen production, CCUS). They can also help improve grid flexibility, for example by being deployed in certain isolated regions or near data centers.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Thorium fuel cycle", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Thorium fuel cycle", "name": "Thorium fuel cycle", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fission", "Nuclear fuel cycles" ], "description": "Thorium-232 can be used as the fertile material in some reactors. Thorium is approximately three to four times more abundant in the Earth's crust than uranium and is found in most rocks and soils, making it a much more plentiful potential resource for nuclear power generation. Thorium itself is, as Uranium-238, not fissile, but when irradiated with neutrons, it converts into Uranium-233, which is fissile and can easily sustain a chain reaction. Thorium fuel cycles thus require initial neutron irradiation to convert Th-232, obtained through a fissile driver—U-233, U-235, or Pu-239—which provide surplus neutrons for breeding. Protactinium-233 is firstly produced, and naturally turns into Uranium-233 after about a month. Protactinium-233 continuously need to undergo chemical separation from the other products, to maintain the high neutron economy necessary to produce more fuel than the reactor consumes. In conventional reactors, it can be processed into solid oxide fuel pellets (Th-MOX), but it is uniquely suited for Molten Salt Reactors (MSRs) where it is dissolved in liquid fluoride salts. These liquid reactors are particularly efficient because they allow for the \"in-situ\" use or chemical separation of Protactinium-233. Over five decades of research have explored the potential of thorium as a nuclear fuel across multiple reactor types. Today, this effort is seeing a global resurgence driven by advancements in molten salt and accelerator-driven subcritical reactors. To date, China has taken a significant lead in the development of this type of fuel cycle, and, India, which has the largest thorium resources, plan to rely on this fuel cycle in its long-term nuclear programme.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "A thorium fuel cycle significantly reduces dependence on uranium supplies and relies on a material that is more abundant and available in a greater number of countries. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Uranium conversion", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Uranium conversion", "name": "Uranium conversion", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fission", "Nuclear fuel cycles", "Front-end of the fuel cycle" ], "description": "Uranium conversion is a critical step in the nuclear fuel cycle, where extracted uranium ore concentrate (commonly called \"yellowcake,\" mostly U3O8) is chemically transformed into forms suitable for the next steps of the fuel cycle. The most common product is uranium hexafluoride (gas, UF6), which can be used in conventional gaseous enrichment processes, but some reactor, which do not need enriched uranium directly use a non-enriched uranium oxide fuel (UO2), an intermediate product of the conventional conversion route. While conventional conversion processes—primarily \"wet\" routes with some integrated \"dry\" methods—are technically stable and well-regulated, the current infrastructure is too geographically concentrated and limited in scale to support a significant global expansion of nuclear power.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Higher conversion capacities that are better distributed geographically will contribute to the establishment of resilient supply chains for uranium. The development of advanced conversion techniques (integrated dry route and others) can facilitate this process.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Uranium enrichment: conventional techniques", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Uranium enrichment: conventional techniques", "name": "Uranium enrichment: conventional techniques", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fission", "Nuclear fuel cycles", "Front-end of the fuel cycle" ], "description": "Natural uranium contains only a small amount—less than 1%—of the fissile isotope U‑235, while the vast majority is the more abundant non-fissile U‑238. Because conventional nuclear reactors require a higher proportion of U‑235 to function efficiently, the uranium must undergo an enrichment process to increase its concentration. This step is currently based on a centrifuge process, using the UF6 gas resulting from the conversion process. It remains technically complex and energy‑intensive, making it one of the more expensive stages of fuel preparation: enrichment typically represents about one‑third of the total cost of nuclear fuel and around five percent of the final cost of the electricity produced. In addition to be defined by significant capital requirements the enrichment sector is characterised by an extreme geopolitic sensitivity, creating formidable barriers to entry for new competitors. Consequently, the global market is dominated by a few major players: Rosatom (Russia), Urenco (UK\/Germany\/Netherlands), Orano (France), and CNNC (China). Together, these four entities control approximately 90% of global capacity, which is currently sufficient to meet global demand. However, these capacities will need to be expanded in some of these countries in the future to follow growing demand for nuclear power and avoid increased concentration of supply chains (Russia). New specific processes and infrastructure will also be needed to achieve the higher enrichment levels required by advanced reactors. For more information on this topic, see the HALEU entry.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Enrichment capabilities are highly strategic for securing uranium supply chains and enabling the accelerated deployment of conventional and next-generation nuclear power.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Uranium enrichment: laser-based techniques", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Uranium enrichment: laser-based techniques", "name": "Uranium enrichment: laser-based techniques", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fission", "Nuclear fuel cycles", "Front-end of the fuel cycle" ], "description": "Convetional centrifuge-based processes for uranium enrichment remain technically complex and energy‑intensive, making the related step one of the more expensive stages of fuel preparation: enrichment typically represents about one‑third of the total cost of nuclear fuel and around five percent of the final cost of the electricity produced (see related entry). Alternative processes promise lower costs and energy consumption. Among them, laser-based enrichment processes, primarily SILEX (Separation of Isotopes by Laser Excitation), utilize finely tuned lasers to selectively excite Uranium 235 isotopes in a gaseous stream of uranium hexafluoride (UF6, product of the conversion process also used in centrifuges). This targeted excitation allows for easier physical separation compared to traditional centrifuges, offering potentially higher efficiency, smaller industrial footprint and HALEU-class enrichment rates. But maintaining stable, high-power lasers at precise wavelengths is for now complex and energy-intensive. Furthermore, laser facilities are way more compact and difficult to detect than massive centrifuge ones: they pose significant nuclear non-proliferation risks (clandestine enrichment). For the moment, these techniques are mainly being developed in the United States, where prototypes have been demonstrated in real and relevant environments, and where plans for scaling up are already in place.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "These alternative processes could reduce the cost of nuclear power and accelerate the reduction of Western countries' dependence on Russian supplies. They could also facilitate the adoption of next-generation reactors by making the HALEU fuel cycle more efficient.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Water-cooled SMR", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Water-cooled SMR", "name": "Water-cooled SMR", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fission", "Small modular reactors" ], "description": "A Small Modular Reactor (SMR) is a compact nuclear reactor (typically under 300 MWe) designed for factory production and on-site assembling. SMRs could offer faster construction than traditional reactors, and more flexible deployment. They are particularly suited to grid application, in remote or not flexible enough areas, and to specific industrial applications (heat production). Although over 130 SMR designs are under development worldwide, not a single one has yet been replicated or deployed on a large scale.\n\nPressurised and Boiling water SMRs would apply the principle used for several decades in large Generation II and III reactors – where high-pressure water or heat is used as a coolant, with a thermal neutron spectrum – to small-scale, modular applications. Despite extensive experience with this type of reactor in large-scale settings, no SMR design has yet led to a commercial demonstration on-land.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "SMRs are an important lever for decarbonization, enabling faster deployment of nuclear power and electrification of key sectors (industry, hydrogen production, CCUS, district heat). They can also help improve grid flexibility, for example by being deployed in certain isolated regions or near data centers.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Alternative fuel cycles for fusion", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Alternative fuel cycles for fusion", "name": "Alternative fuel cycles for fusion", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fusion" ], "description": "Some fusion concepts do not propose using deuterium-tritium fuel and, if successful, could eliminate some of the challenges associated with fuel supply, reactor durability, radioactivity and power generation cycles. Lithium-Deuterium and proton-Boron fusion offer direct electricity conversion via charged particles (alphas\/protons), reducing radioactive waste and simplifying power generation. Proton-boron and proton-lithium promise aneutronic reactions (which is highly beneficial for the durability of the plasma-facing components) but demand extreme conditions; deuterium-helium-3 fusion, which also produce less neutrons, requires He-3 breeding.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "These alternative fuels are options to be considered alongside D-T fuel and could offer significant advantages, particularly in terms of the durability of reactor components.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Electrostatic approaches for plasma confinement", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Electrostatic approaches for plasma confinement", "name": "Electrostatic approaches for plasma confinement", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fusion", "Alternative approaches" ], "description": "Electrostatic approaches add electric fields in Inertial or Magnetic Confinement systems . The most advanced form, inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC), uses electric fields to accelerate ions inward, causing them to collide at the center and potentially fuse. It is commercially used for neutron generation but suffers high energy losses preventing net gain. Magneto-electrostatic plasma confinement systems are at a lower level development. They use electrostatic fields to accelerate and confine charged particles, while magnetic fields guide and stabilize their motion. \n\n\n\n", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Overall, these approaches represent exploratory avenues towards smaller and potentially simpler fusion systems, but they are still far from reaching TRL4, and their short-term and even long-term impact on energy mixes seems much more limited than that of other approaches.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Fuel cycle for ICF", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Fuel cycle for ICF", "name": "Fuel cycle for ICF", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fusion", "Inertial confinement fusion" ], "description": "A key R&D focus for ICF is increasing the repetition rate of fusion “shots”. A commercial reactor will need to fire at least one shot per second, and maybe more than 10. Today it is impossible to achieve such shot frequencies, and each target is expensive to produce and cannot be mass-manufactured. In addition to developing next-generation lasers, it will be crucial to develop innovative processes for automated, efficient and repetitive fuel fabrication (mass-manufactured on an other site) and preparation, injection, firing and removal (on-site). ", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "One of the barriers to the commercial viability of inertial confinement fusion currently lies in the immaturity of the fuel targets manufacturing process. For a commercial GW-scale operation millions of them would be needed each month. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Fusion energy (general entry)", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Fusion energy (general entry)", "name": "Fusion energy (general entry)", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fusion" ], "description": "Nuclear fusion is the process by which light atomic nuclei such as hydrogen isotopes are forced together under extreme conditions to form heavier nuclei, releasing vast quantities of energy. In stars like the Sun, immense gravitational pressure and high temperatures enable hydrogen nuclei to overcome their electrostatic repulsion and fuse, producing helium and vast amounts of energy. Replicating fusion on Earth is extremely complicated: Earth lacks the Sun’s size and gravity to naturally heat and compress the fuel. It has been the subject of decades of international research into the design and development of reactors capable of replicating stellar conditions, enabling fusion reactions and capturing the resulting energy. \n\nThese reactors should confine on demand a sufficiently hot and dense plasma – a soup of charged particles and free electrons – for a sufficiently long time, while also controlling instabilities and ensuring that more energy is released than consumed. Current fusion research is largely centred on the deuterium–tritium (D-T) reaction and focuses on two distinct approaches: the first uses magnetic confinement (MCF), the second uses inertial confinement (ICF). In the first powerful magnetic fields trap and control the plasma inside a large vacuum chamber, in the second intense lasers or ion beams compress a tiny fuel pellet to extreme density and temperature for a very short period of time. The former has attracted the largest budgets and efforts since 1950, but the latter has gained interest recently. Other approaches exist, but remain, for now, more marginal avenues.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Fusion energy, a carbon-free, dispatchable and safe power source, holds disruptive potential for the global energy sector. If successfully commercialized, it could account for 30 to 50% of the energy mix by 2100. However, its near-term impact on Net-Zero pathways remains constrained by the protracted timeline required for its development—with large commercial deployment not expected before 2050.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Fusion power generation cycles", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Fusion power generation cycles", "name": "Fusion power generation cycles", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fusion" ], "description": "In a fusion power plant, the power generation cycle would transfers heat from the plasma (where fusion occurs) to a working fluid (such as molten salts, helium, or supercritical CO2) via a primary circuit. This fluid drives turbines in a secondary circuit (often using water) to generate electricity, similar to fission reactors but at much higher temperatures. The fusion power generation cycles are therefore unique and not yet demonstrated on a large scale.\n\nThese cycles are not yet optimised for high efficiency operation. While this may not pose a problem for demonstration of feasibility of fusion power plants, further efforts will be required before gigawatts of installations can be considered. Efforts are also underway to develop reactors that do not need a separate power generation cycle.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "For fusion energy to be deployed in the coming decades, a greater proportion of R&D efforts must be directed towards the integration of the confinement system, which requires the development of cost-effective fuel and power generation cycles.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "High temperature superconducting magnets", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > High temperature superconducting magnets", "name": "High temperature superconducting magnets", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fusion", "Magnetic confinement fusion" ], "description": "A high-temperature superconducting (HTS) magnet uses materials like REBCO (rare-earth barium copper oxide) or BSCCO (bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide) that conduct electricity with zero resistance at higher temperatures than conventional superconducting magnets. These magnets also generate, for a given low temperature much stronger magnetic fields the conventional low temperature ones, enabling more compact, efficient, and thermally robust systems for advanced fusion reactors and other high-field applications.\n\nSuperconducting magnets are crucial for magnetic confinement: they generate strong, continuous fields without resistive losses. Without them, conventional magnets would overheat and consume excessive power, limiting reactors to short pulses. Current magnetic confinement fusion (MCF) systems primarily use low-temperature superconducting magnets, typically made from niobium-titanium (NbTi) or niobium-tin (Nb3Sn). These materials must operate at temperatures near 4 kelvin, requiring complex and energy-intensive cryogenic systems. They also impose limitations on magnetic field strength, and therefore reactor compactness. Using HTS technology would therefore allow stronger confinement fields, and reduce the need for intensive cryogenic systems, enabling smaller, more efficient, and potentially cheaper reactors. HTS magnets can also be more resistant to radiation and mechanical stress, improving operational lifetime in fusion environments. \n\nUnfortunately, their material and manufacturing costs remains high, and it’s still challenging to fabric long, uniform tapes or cables (mechanical fragility and poor handling). There are also significant operational challenges (installation and maintenance).", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The development and deployment of HTS magnets could be key to fusion energy having a significant impact on energy mixes: they could make fusion reactors more efficient, cost-effective, and above all, more rapidly deployable, whereas current designs have long construction times. Some next-generation compact fusion devices are transitioning to HTS magnets, but their operability and performance have not yet been demonstrated, and their application currently seems limited to tokamaks (stellarators have overly complex geometries).", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "High-durability materials for the first wall, divertor and blanket", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > High-durability materials for the first wall, divertor and blanket", "name": "High-durability materials for the first wall, divertor and blanket", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fusion", "Magnetic confinement fusion" ], "description": "In tokamaks and stellarator, some components interface with the plasma, enduring extreme heat and particle fluxes. They require highly durable materials to protect the reactor structure for a significant number of plasma-burning cycle so that reactors, when in continuous and commercial operation, have a long lifespan and remain cost-effective.\n\nThree main components: the first wall, the blanket and the divertor. the first wall protects structural components from intense heat and neutron flux while transmitting energy to the blanket and maintaining plasma–vacuum separation. The blanket absorbs fusion neutrons to convert their energy into heat for power generation and breeds tritium fuel. The divertor removes helium ash and impurities, manages heat loads, and controls plasma–wall interactions to maintain plasma purity and stability.\n\nThe first wall and the divertor, directly facing the plasma, are usually made of tungsten or beryllium which can degrade under neutron irradiation and high temperatures. The blanket is usually made of ferritic or martensitic steels, and lithium for tritium breeding. The development of advanced tungsten alloys and composites, SiC\/SiC composites, reduced-activation steels and new liquid metal systems could improve their durability and unlock some self-healing properties.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The level of penetration of fusion energy in the energy mix will depend greatly on the costs of fusion energy. Durable materials will significantly reduce the lifespan of magnetic confinement systems and, consequently, the cost of this carbon-free energy source.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Inertial confinement fusion", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Inertial confinement fusion", "name": "Inertial confinement fusion", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fusion", "Inertial confinement fusion" ], "description": "Inertial confinement systems use intense laser or particle beams to rapidly compress and heat a small D-T fuel pellet. The outer layer explodes outward, driving the inner core inward to extreme temperatures and pressures, triggering fusion before the pellet can disassemble, releasing energy momentarily. While magnetic confinement devices focus on long reaction times, with relatively low-density plasma, inertial confinement is based on extremely short reaction times, with plasma becoming extremely dense.\n\nThere are currently two main approaches for inertial confinement: direct drive, where lasers strike the surface of the fuel capsule directly, requiring extremely uniform illumination to achieve symmetrical compression, and indirect drive, where lasers heat a surrounding hohlraum, producing X-rays that compress the capsule uniformly (this latter approach has had the most advanced physical results). However, R&D on ICF is diversifying at a surprising rate, and new approaches, laser based or not, have been developed in recent years (e.g. fast ignition or shock ignition), among which there may be a solution that could have disruptive effects.\n\nFrom a purely physical point of view, inertial confinement systems seems more advanced than magnetic confinement systems, but this method remains less advanced from an engineering perpective. Experiments have succeeded in producing more energy than LASERs and in achieving ignition (the point at which the fusion reaction becomes self-sustained), but these are still far from being reproducible on demand and are far from being energy-efficient enough to yield energy gains when considering the system as a whole.\n\n", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "It is quite difficult to quantify the impact that ICF could have on energy mixes, as the engineering development pathways for inertial confinement systems are rather uncertain. A marketable system would need to reproduce fusion reactions at a consistent rate without consuming too much energy. This is not currently the case: LASERs are not energy efficient enough, the reaction cannot be reproduced on demand, fuel pellet manufacturing remains costly, and we are still a long way from developing energy capture systems. However, research is intensifying, and innovations are being made in confinement methods and ancillary systems (lasers, fuel pellet manufacturing, compasses to manipulate the components to make the reaction reproducible, etc.).", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Lithium-6 production", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Lithium-6 production", "name": "Lithium-6 production", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fusion", "Magnetic confinement fusion" ], "description": "Breeding blanket use mainly Lithium-6, a rare isotope of Lithium, representing 7% of natural Lithium. Given the amounts of purified Lithium needed for a fusion power plant (1 tonne of naturally ocurring Lithium for a GW-scale plant), it is crucial to develop more cost-effective and energy-efficient methods for separating Lithium isotopes.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "For fusion energy to be deployed in the coming decades, a greater proportion of R&D efforts must be directed towards the integration of the confinement system, which requires the development of cost-effective fuel and power generation cycles.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Magnetic confinement fusion: alternative approaches", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Magnetic confinement fusion: alternative approaches", "name": "Magnetic confinement fusion: alternative approaches", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fusion", "Magnetic confinement fusion" ], "description": "Beyond tokamaks and stellarators, alternative approaches for magnetic confinement fusion exist. Even though initially at the heart of public research, these less advanced approaches are now mostly developed by start-ups and can be seen as long shots to win the race for a commercial power plant. The most mature ones exploit the benefits of field reverse configurations, in which the plasma generates magnetic fields that contribute to its confinement. Other concepts include magnetic mirror reactors and levitated dipole reactors. They represent a more marginal part of research efforts.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Given the current status of progress in these alternative approaches, it is unlikely that they will have an impact on energy systems for several decades. However, some start-ups, buoyed by record levels of funding or upcoming IPOs, are becoming serious contenders in the commercial fusion energy market.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Magnetic confinement fusion: stellarators", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Magnetic confinement fusion: stellarators", "name": "Magnetic confinement fusion: stellarators", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fusion", "Magnetic confinement fusion" ], "description": "The confinement system is the central component of a fusion power plant. This is where energy is produced, and where the physical and engineering challenges are greatest. It must heat a sufficiently dense plasma – a soup of charged hydrogen isotopes (D-T) and free electrons – without using more energy than is produced. The confinement method that has attracted the most research in recent decades, due to its physical and, above all, engineering advantages is magnetic confinement. It uses extremely powerful magnetic fields to confine a preliminary heated and then maintained inherently unstable plasma in a vacuum chamber, preventing it from touching any wall of the reactor — no material can withstand the temperatures reached. The development of the required geometries and materials poses considerable scientific and engineering challenges, as does the production of sufficiently energy-efficient, durable and economically viable systems. \n\nThe stellarator concept is the second most studied, after the tokamak one. Invented in the early 1950s in the US, it was the first magnetic confinement concept for fusion and dominated early research. It generates directly the desired magnetic helical fields by modifying the geometry of the doughnut rather than adding external magnets. This generally results in a twisted doughnut. It was surpassed by the tokamak due to poorer plasma confinement, but advances in computational design and magnet technology revived stellarator research in the recent years.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "All 13 operating stellarators are publicly owned and experimental, and no net energy output has ever been demonstrated, even at the plasma scale. It will be several years or decades before the confinement system is integrated with other components to produce sealable energy, and several more before large-scale deployment. Therefore, this decarbonisation technology will probably not significantly impact national energy mixes before 2050.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Magnetic confinement fusion: tokamaks", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Magnetic confinement fusion: tokamaks", "name": "Magnetic confinement fusion: tokamaks", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fusion", "Magnetic confinement fusion" ], "description": "The confinement system is the central component of a fusion power plant. This is where energy is produced, and where the physical and engineering challenges are greatest. It must heat a sufficiently dense plasma – a soup of charged hydrogen isotopes (D-T) and free electrons – without using more energy than is produced. The confinement method that has attracted the most research in recent decades, due to its physical and, above all, engineering advantages is magnetic confinement. It uses extremely powerful magnetic fields to confine a preliminary heated and then maintained inherently unstable plasma in a vacuum chamber, preventing it from touching any wall of the reactor — no material can withstand the temperatures reached. The development of the required geometries and materials poses considerable scientific and engineering challenges, as does the production of sufficiently energy-efficient, durable and economically viable systems.\n\nSeveral designs have been the focus of R&D efforts for varying lengths of time, but the tokamak concept has received the most sustained attention. It was developed in the 1950s–1960s by Soviet physicists and became the leading approach to magnetic confinement fusion after experiments in the late 1960s. The main component is a toroidal (doughnut-shaped) chamber, composed of powerful magnetic coils (generating a linear toroidal magnetic through the donut) and other components which cools, protects, and monitors the plasma and the chamber itself. However, radial non-uniformities in magnetic field strength cause charged particles to separate, creating an electrostatic field that deflects the plasma towards the chamber walls. To counteract this, magnets in the centre and outside the doughnut generate poloidal currents, which twist the initial field and mix the charged particles.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "All 56 operating tokamaks are experimental, and no net energy output has ever been demonstrated, even at the plasma scale. It will be several years or decades before the confinement system is integrated with other components to produce sealable energy, and several more before large-scale deployment. Therefore, this decarbonisation technology will probably not significantly impact national energy mixes before 2050.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Magneto-inertial confinement fusion: magnetised liner (maglif)", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Magneto-inertial confinement fusion: magnetised liner (maglif)", "name": "Magneto-inertial confinement fusion: magnetised liner (maglif)", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fusion", "Alternative approaches" ], "description": "Magneto-inertial confinement systems attempt to combine the principles of inertial and magnetic confinement in order to overcome the limitations of both. In general, these approaches follow the principle of inertial confinement, with slightly longer reaction tines, and with a magnetic field augmenting the level of heat and compression on the fuel pellet. The principle traces back to early research into Z- and theta-pinches, where strong currents or magnetic pulses compressed plasma. These devices demonstrated that magnetic fields could help stabilize and confine plasma during rapid compression.\n\nMagneto-inertial confinement is pursued through two main approaches: magnetized liner inertial fusion (MagLIF), magnetized target fusion and Field-Reversed Configuration based inertial fusion. In MagLIF, an electrical current pulse flows along a fuel liner, generating a surrounding magnetic field that compresses the plasma. Various devices can be used to generate this pulse, including Impedance-matched Marx generator.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Magneto-inertial confinement systems remain less advanced than magnetic or inertial confinement systems. However, pathways towards commercialisation are being established by several start-ups, some of them planing first commercial demonstration arroun 2030 thanks to compact designs and reduced costs.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Magneto-inertial confinement fusion: magnetised target", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Magneto-inertial confinement fusion: magnetised target", "name": "Magneto-inertial confinement fusion: magnetised target", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fusion", "Alternative approaches" ], "description": "Magneto-inertial confinement systems attempt to combine the principles of inertial and magnetic confinement in order to overcome the limitations of both. In general, these approaches follow the principle of inertial confinement, with the magnetic field augmenting the level of heat and compression on the fuel pellet. The principle traces back to early research into Z- and theta-pinches, where strong currents or magnetic pulses compressed plasma. These devices demonstrated that magnetic fields could help stabilize and confine plasma during rapid compression.\n\nMagneto-inertial confinement is pursued through two main approaches: magnetized liner inertial fusion (MagLIF), magnetized target fusion and Field-Reversed Configuration based inertial fusion. Magnetised Target Fusion compresses a pre-heated, magnetized plasma using a physical compression system or magnetic fields, enhancing confinement and fusion conditions.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Magneto-inertial confinement systems remain less advanced than magnetic or inertial confinement systems. However, pathways towards commercialisation are being established by several start-ups, some of them planing first commercial demonstration arroun 2030 thanks to compact designs and reduced costs.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Muon-catalyzed fusion", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Muon-catalyzed fusion", "name": "Muon-catalyzed fusion", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fusion", "Alternative approaches" ], "description": "Muon-catalyzed fusion uses heavy electrons (muons) to bring hydrogen nuclei close enough to fuse at low temperatures. It needs a cost-effective muon source and higher reaction rates per muon to be viable, but their short 2 μs lifespan and energy-intensive production currently make net energy gain impossible. This field remains highly experimental but includes recognized research directions.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Given the low level of development of these fusion approaches, it seems difficult to say at this stage what impact these technologies might have on NetZero pathways.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Next-generation LASERs for fusion energy", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Next-generation LASERs for fusion energy", "name": "Next-generation LASERs for fusion energy", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fusion", "Inertial confinement fusion" ], "description": "LASER systems efficiency and shot frequency capabilities are crucial for the commercialization of Inertial Confinement Fusion. They determine whether the system can produce significant outputs, and more usable power than it consumes. Current conventional LASER systems used in ICF devices, though capable of megajoule shots, convert only about 1% of electrical energy into laser light and can fire just a few shots per day. A viable fusion power plant, however, should operate continuously at 5–10 shots per second with >10% efficiency to sustain net electrical output. Achieving this requires energy efficient LASER systems capable of reliable, rapid firing without overheating or degrading, enabling practical, economical fusion energy generation.\n\nLASERs like those at NIF or LMJ, are Flashlamp-Pumped Solid-State LASERs. They discharge electrically flashlamps (long tubes filled with xenon gas) to produce a specific broadband light which will excite neodymium ions (located in a dopped solid glass slab) which will emit coherent infrared light. This light pulse is reflected back and forth through multiple amplifiers and then emitted after passing by crystals making the wavelength shorter. Given the low efficiency and reproducibility mentioned above, other LASER designs are developed. The most promising design is that of the Diode-pumped Solid-State LASERs (DPSSLs) which replace the flashlamp with laser diodes tuned more precisely (better spectral precision) to excite the ions in the solid glass slab (conventionally Neodymium ions, but Ytterbium ions are more adapted to ICF applications). Here, a higher share the pump photons are absorbed efficiently by the ions than in Flashlamp-Pumper LASERs. Other designs, not necesseraly diode-pumped could be of interest in the upcoming years.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "DPSSLs could bridge the gap between today’s one-shot fusion experiments and the first grid-connected fusion power plants. They have proven the fundamental performance (multi-Hz operation and tenfold efficiency improvement over flashlamp systems), but are not scaled for real-world application (heat management, cost, sustained optical quality and reliability and scale energy outputs). Other designs could have the same impact but are less developed.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Plasma heating", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Plasma heating", "name": "Plasma heating", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fusion", "Magnetic confinement fusion" ], "description": "In magnetic and magneto-intertial confinement devices, the plasma must reach and maintain temperatures of 100 million degrees to enable fusion reactions, particularly for the deuterium-tritium (D-T) fuel cycle. In most of these devices, a combination of four techniques – of varying importance – is used to reach this high technical challenge: natural beam injection, radiofrequency heating, ohmic heating and magnetic compression. Ohmic heating is obtained by inducing a strong electric current in the plasma as the magnetic field changes. Neutral beam injection driven heating is obtained by injecting high-energy neutral particles (accelerated to 1 MeV) into the plasma; these particles collide with plasma ions and electrons, transferring their energy. Electron cyclotron resonance heating uses high-intensity electromagnetic waves to resonate with electrons, and Ion cyclotron resonance heating employs radio waves to directly energize the ions. ", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Tritium breeding", "breadcrumb": "Nuclear > Tritium breeding", "name": "Tritium breeding", "sector": [ "Nuclear", "Fusion", "Magnetic confinement fusion" ], "description": "Tritium Breeding in a fusion reactor refers to the process of producing tritium, a rare hydrogen isotope, inside the reactor to fuel the fusion reaction. Since tritium is scarce in nature, most fusion designs (like tokamaks) rely on breeding blankets containing lithium. When lithium is bombarded by neutrons from the plasma, it produces tritium (and helium), which can, after passing through an external processing cycle outside the reactor core (sometimes associated with the power generation cycle), be reinjected so that the D-T fusion reaction continues.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "For fusion energy to be deployed in the coming decades, a greater proportion of R&D efforts must be directed towards the integration of the confinement system, which requires the development of cost-effective fuel and power generation cycles.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Closed-loop geothermal systems", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Closed-loop geothermal systems", "name": "Closed-loop geothermal systems", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Geothermal", "Subsurface operations for geothermal energy", "Next-generation geothermal energy systems" ], "description": "Closed-loop geothermal systems (CLGS) cover a range of new, closed or partially closed-loop (hybrid) technology trials for power generation. These trials largely rely on thermal conduction in rock (a poor conductor) along long wellbores and often rely on the use of supercritical CO2 or other new working fluids. CLGS allows for applications in low-permeability rocks, eliminating permeability and reservoir uncertainty, and could potentially be applied low-temperature sedimentary resources. This allows expansion of geothermal from a limited conventional hydrothermal geothermal supply into sedimentary basins leading to a growth in geothermal supply of several magnitudes and locations. Closed loop systems also prevent interaction with potentially toxic and corrosive subsurface fluids.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "CLGS enables a significant extension for geothermal resources globally and translation of oil and gas innovation and expertise. It could reduce the complexity of subsurface interactions by avoiding the reduction of subsurface pressure and geochemical interactions and improves heat transfer efficiencies.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Conventional dry steam geothermal power plants", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Conventional dry steam geothermal power plants", "name": "Conventional dry steam geothermal power plants", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Geothermal", "Surface operations for geothermal energy" ], "description": "Dry steam plants, which make up about a quarter of geothermal capacity today, directly utilise dry steam that is piped from production wells to the plant and then to the turbine.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Mature technology, but deployment opportunities depend on local potential.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Directional steel-shot drilling", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Directional steel-shot drilling", "name": "Directional steel-shot drilling", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Geothermal", "Subsurface operations for geothermal energy", "Drilling" ], "description": "Directional steel-shot drilling is a technique that uses high-velocity steel pellets to erode rock along a controlled trajectory, allowing precise, steerable borehole creation. Unlike traditional rotary drilling, it reduces mechanical wear on drill bits and enables navigation through complex geological formations, making it particularly useful for accessing hard-to-reach geothermal reservoirs or creating multiple branches from a single well.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "By improving drilling efficiency and reducing equipment energy use and downtime, directional steel-shot drilling can help expand geothermal energy production, supporting net zero emissions targets.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Enhanced geothermal systems", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Enhanced geothermal systems", "name": "Enhanced geothermal systems", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Geothermal", "Subsurface operations for geothermal energy", "Next-generation geothermal energy systems" ], "description": "Enhanced or engineered geothermal systems (EGS) aim at using the heat of the Earth in regions that lack enough natural fluid and permeability for a conventional hydrothermal plant to circulate water at commercial flow rates. EGS technology is centred on engineering and creating large heat exchange areas in hot rock. The process involves enhancing permeability by opening pre-existing fractures and\/or creating new fractures. Heat is extracted by pumping a transfer medium, typically water, down a borehole into the hot fractured rock and then pumping the heated fluid up another borehole to a power plant, from where it is pumped back down (recirculated) to repeat the cycle. There were significant developments in 2024, predominantly by Fervo and their PPA with Google, but Sage also made some progress with securing 100% offtake with Meta. In 2025, additional PPAs have been signed and FERVO making strives with reducing costs and contracting for expansions of power plants", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Enhanced geothermal systems could enable the utilisation of a significantly larger portion of Earth’s geothermal resource, beyond conventional hydrothermal systems. But their long‑term cost trajectory remains uncertain, even though several PPAs and off-take agreements have recently been signed.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Flash steam geothermal power plant (hot water)", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Flash steam geothermal power plant (hot water)", "name": "Flash steam geothermal power plant (hot water)", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Geothermal", "Surface operations for geothermal energy" ], "description": "Flash steam plants, making up about two-thirds of geothermal installed capacity today, are used where water-dominated reservoirs have temperatures above 180°C. In these high-temperature reservoirs, the liquid water component boils, or “flashes,” as pressure drops. Separated steam is piped to a turbine to generate electricity and the remaining hot water may be flashed again twice (double flash plant) or three times (triple flash) at progressively lower pressures and temperatures, to obtain more steam.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Mature technology, but deployment opportunities depend on local potential.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "High-pressure water jet-assisted drilling", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > High-pressure water jet-assisted drilling", "name": "High-pressure water jet-assisted drilling", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Geothermal", "Subsurface operations for geothermal energy", "Drilling" ], "description": "High pressure water jet assissted drilling such as Radial Jet Drilling (RJD), which creates microholes through the rock, could effectively stimulate geothermal reservoirs. This method uses high-pressure water jets to cut rocks into specific shapes, which can then be broken apart more easily by fluid-powered percussive hammers. Still in the lab testing phase, field tests may be deployed next year to test how it can be used to improve drilling rates.  ", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, null, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Kalina cycle geothermal power plant (low temperature resources)", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Kalina cycle geothermal power plant (low temperature resources)", "name": "Kalina cycle geothermal power plant (low temperature resources)", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Geothermal", "Surface operations for geothermal energy" ], "description": "Kalina cycle is one cycle option to use low-temperature geothermal resources, typically operating with temperatures varying from as low as 73°C to 180°C. The heat is recovered from the geothermal fluid using heat exchangers to vaporise a working fluid with a low boiling point (ammonia-water mixture) and drive a turbine.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Enables the use of low-temperature heat sources, but deployment opportunities depend on local potential.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Millimeter wave drilling", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Millimeter wave drilling", "name": "Millimeter wave drilling", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Geothermal", "Subsurface operations for geothermal energy", "Drilling" ], "description": "Millimetre wave drilling is an emerging technique in geothermal energy that uses extremely high-frequency electromagnetic waves to penetrate rock formations with high precision. Unlike conventional mechanical drilling, it can create boreholes with reduced wear on equipment and minimal thermal or mechanical stress on surrounding rock, potentially increasing drilling speed and well longevity. Its non-contact nature also allows for drilling in challenging geological conditions that would be difficult for traditional methods.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "By improving the efficiency and reducing the environmental impact of geothermal well construction, millimetre wave drilling can support the expansion of renewable geothermal energy, contributing to net zero energy goals.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Organic rankine cycle (low temperature resources)", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Organic rankine cycle (low temperature resources)", "name": "Organic rankine cycle (low temperature resources)", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Geothermal", "Surface operations for geothermal energy" ], "description": "Organic Rankine cycle (ORC) is one cycle option to use low-temperature geothermal resources, typically operating with temperatures varying from as low as 73°C to 180°C. The heat is recovered from the geothermal fluid using heat exchangers to vaporise a working fluid with a low boiling point (butane or pentane) and drive a turbine.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Enables the use of low-temperature heat sources, but deployment opportunities depend on local potential.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Percussive drilling", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Percussive drilling", "name": "Percussive drilling", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Geothermal", "Subsurface operations for geothermal energy", "Drilling" ], "description": "Combines traditional rotary drilling with percussive action is another augmented drilling method undergoing testing. By \"hammering\" into the rock as the drill rotates, this design can provide faster rates through more efficient drilling. One commercialisation effort is the Geovolve HAMMER.  ", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Pulse plasma drilling", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Pulse plasma drilling", "name": "Pulse plasma drilling", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Geothermal", "Subsurface operations for geothermal energy", "Drilling" ], "description": "Using a plasma torch of gas at super-high temperatures, this technology is a form of a thermal drill through rock which will melt or vaporize rock. GA drilling and Quaise are working to commercialize this technology. ", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Superhot \/ supercritical geothermal systems", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Superhot \/ supercritical geothermal systems", "name": "Superhot \/ supercritical geothermal systems", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Geothermal", "Subsurface operations for geothermal energy", "Next-generation geothermal energy systems" ], "description": "Superhot rock geothermal (SHR) systems tap hot, deep, energy-dense geothermal resources. Main topics include heat extraction, SHR specific well design and construction\/materials , and site selection. ", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Thermal-shock drilling", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Thermal-shock drilling", "name": "Thermal-shock drilling", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Geothermal", "Subsurface operations for geothermal energy", "Drilling" ], "description": "This method involves giving rocks \"thermal shocks\" by rapidly heating and cooling them. The temperature changes create cracks in the rocks, making them easier to drill. Thermal shocks weaken the structural integrity of the rock, allowing more efficient penetration. This technology is still in its early stages with tests down to a few dozen meters", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 2 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Working fluids", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Working fluids", "name": "Working fluids", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Geothermal", "Surface operations for geothermal energy" ], "description": "working fluids are the liquids or gases that circulate through the surface equipment to transfer thermal energy extracted from the geothermal reservoir. Working fluids are the engineered or naturally occurring fluids used to extract, transport, and utilize geothermal heat within the surface facilities of a geothermal system. These may nee dto be handled in specific ways and or developed synthetically or blending to ensure smoothe continuous operationg of the surface facilities such as turbines.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Adsorbents storage", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Adsorbents storage", "name": "Adsorbents storage", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "H2 storage", "Materials-based storage" ], "description": "The hydrogen storage capacity of sorbent-based systems is in an intermediate level between compressed gas and intermetallic compounds (metal hydrides), involving the transfer of hydrogen molecules to the surface of the pores of solid materials through physical interaction (van der Waals bonding) and the subsequent release of hydrogen, whenever required, by thermal stimulation or other techniques. Different materials have been investigated for their potential use in the storage of hydrogen through adsorption, among them; metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), carbon-based materials, zeolites and polymers of intrinsic microporosity (PIMs) have been some of the most extensively studied due to their fast kinetics, good reversibility and high stability over many cycles. However, due to the weak interactions between hydrogen molecules and the surface of these solid materials, high hydrogen storage capacities are generally achieved at cryogenic temperatures (around -196 °C) and relatively high pressures. At ambient temperature and pressure conditions, hydrogen adsorption capacities are usually very low (<1 wt%.). Some materials, such as MOFs or PIMs, can be designed, assembled and modified on the atomic or molecular levels, and research looks at designing cost-efficient storage solutions with acceptable volumetric and gravimetric densities.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen storage" ], "trl": [ null, null, 3, 3, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Small- and medium-scale storage will be needed to support stationary storage for the distributed generation of hydrogen.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ammonia cracking - catalytic membrane", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Ammonia cracking - catalytic membrane", "name": "Ammonia cracking - catalytic membrane", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "Conditioning processes" ], "description": "Ammonia cracking is the decomposition of ammonia into nitrogen and hydrogen. The reaction is endothermic and becomes thermodynamically feasible only above 180°C, with higher temperatures required in practice to achieve high single-pass conversion. Increasing pressure thermodynamically disfavours the reaction, further raising temperature requirements. Catalysts are therefore needed to obtain sufficient reaction rates. These constraints (high temperatures, moderate pressures and significant heat demand) limit process configurations to conventional reformer-type crackers and, more recently, catalytic membrane reactor designs.\nCatalytic membrane ammonia reactors integrate ammonia cracking and hydrogen separation within a single unit by combining an ammonia cracking catalyst with hydrogen-selective palladium-based membranes. As hydrogen permeates continuously through the membrane, its concentration on the reaction side decreases. This shifts the equilibrium limitations and drives further ammonia conversion, thereby increasing hydrogen production. This configuration enables the direct production of high-purity hydrogen, typically at fuel-cell grade, thus eliminating the need of the subsequent hydrogen separation and purification steps required for conventional reformer-type ammonia crackers. Operating temperatures are generally lower than in reformer-type ammonia cracking, typically around 425–500°C, as continuous hydrogen removal promotes conversion. Catalysts commonly include Ru-based materials, while Pd-Ag membranes are frequently used due to their high hydrogen permeability and improved resistance to hydrogen embrittlement compared with pure palladium.\nHowever, pressure losses across the membrane may result in the need for additional compression of the hydrogen stream. While this technology has the potential to be more efficient than conventional reformer-type ammonia crackers due to lower operating temperatures and the elimination of downstream purification units, the cost of membranes and the need for compression or vacuum systems remain important considerations. Consequently, catalytic membrane ammonia reactors are currently best suited to small-scale, modular hydrogen production, particularly for decentralised or on-board applications, such as refuelling stations and maritime uses, where compactness and the direct supply of high-purity hydrogen are advantageous. ", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen distribution" ], "trl": [ null, null, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "When pipelines are not feasible, hydrogen can be transported over long distances by conversion to ammonia, which is easier to store and ship and already benefits from established global transport and port infrastructure; where pure hydrogen is required at the point of use, ammonia must then be cracked back into hydrogen and nitrogen, making ammonia cracking a key enabling technology for ammonia-based hydrogen supply chains. Reformer-type ammonia crackers are more suited to large, centralised import or industrial consumption sites, while catalytic membrane ammonia reactors are better suited to decentralised or onboard applications requiring compact systems and direct production of purified hydrogen. The contribution of these technologies to a Net Zero Emissions scenario depends on the extent of low-emissions hydrogen trade, but efficient ammonia cracking can support hydrogen deployment by enabling practical transport and storage while supplying hydrogen in a usable form where direct delivery is difficult.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ammonia cracking - reformer", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Ammonia cracking - reformer", "name": "Ammonia cracking - reformer", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "Conditioning processes" ], "description": "Ammonia cracking is the decomposition of ammonia into nitrogen and hydrogen. The reaction is endothermic and becomes thermodynamically feasible only above 180°C, with higher temperatures required in practice to achieve high single-pass conversion. Increasing pressure thermodynamically disfavours the reaction, further raising temperature requirements. Catalysts are therefore needed to obtain sufficient reaction rates. These constraints (high temperatures, moderate pressures and significant heat demand) limit process configurations to conventional reformer-type crackers and, more recently, catalytic membrane reactor designs.\nReformer-type ammonia crackers use externally heated, multi-tubular reactors that are conceptually similar to steam methane reformers used for hydrogen production. Ammonia decomposes over catalysts within heated tubes, typically at 600-900°C and moderate pressures (around 30 bar), producing a gas stream composed mainly of hydrogen (~75%) and nitrogen (~25%), with small amounts of residual ammonia and water. The catalysts are typically Ni-based, Fe-Co alloys or Ru-based materials, which enable high reaction rates inside the tubular reactor. The hydrogen must then be separated and purified downstream, typically using pressure swing adsorption (PSA), often preceded by the partial removal of residual ammonia and water to protect the separation unit. Energy integration schemes generally resemble those of steam methane reformers, with mature waste-heat recovery and flue-gas heat utilisation strategies, although furnace losses remain significant, at around 30% of the energy content of ammonia. While the heat supply may currently come from fossil fuels, it can also be provided by hydrogen and\/or ammonia burners, and electrically heated concepts are emerging. \nThis technology is best suited to large, centralised installations and has long been used in industry, notably in ammonia-cracking units for heavy water (deuterated water) production for nuclear applications, including facilities currently in operation in Argentina and India.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen distribution" ], "trl": [ null, null, 6, 6, 6, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "When pipelines are not feasible, hydrogen can be transported over long distances by conversion to ammonia, which is easier to store and ship and already benefits from established global transport and port infrastructure; where pure hydrogen is required at the point of use, ammonia must then be cracked back into hydrogen and nitrogen, making ammonia cracking a key enabling technology for ammonia-based hydrogen supply chains. Reformer-type ammonia crackers are more suited to large, centralised import or industrial consumption sites, while catalytic membrane ammonia reactors are better suited to decentralised or onboard applications requiring compact systems and direct production of purified hydrogen. The contribution of these technologies to a Net Zero Emissions scenario depends on the extent of low-emissions hydrogen trade, but efficient ammonia cracking can support hydrogen deployment by enabling practical transport and storage while supplying hydrogen in a usable form where direct delivery is difficult.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ammonia storage", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Ammonia storage", "name": "Ammonia storage", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "H2 storage", "Aboveground storage" ], "description": "Ammonia has been stored as a liquid since ammonia production on an industrial scale began about 100 years ago. Ammonia was initially stored in pressurised systems, typically of around 2 000 tonnes. Today, atmospheric ammonia storage tanks are used to store up to 50 000 tonnes. Low-pressure ammonia storage has been widely accepted, as it requires much less capital per unit of volume. There are different types of atmospheric tanks for ammonia operating at -33 °C, but the current practice recommends using double-wall double integrity tanks, which can have insulation in the annular space or on the outer tank. As ammonia may be used as a fuel, new ammonia storage units may function as fuel bunker.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels storage" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", "C", "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Ammonia storage will be needed at trade ports and for bunkering purposes if ammonia is used as a fuel in the shipping sector.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ammonia tanker", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Ammonia tanker", "name": "Ammonia tanker", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "H2 shipping" ], "description": "Ammonia is shipped in fully refrigerated, non-pressurised vessels, often designed to carry liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), as it has a lower boiling point [-42 °C] compared to ammonia [-33 °C]. LPG carriers can be used provided there are no parts containing copper or zinc or their alloys in contact with the cargo. While currently ammonia shipments are around 20 million tonnes per annum (Mtpa), and it is a mature technology, research is looking at the use of ammonia as fuel by carrying ships, particularly with separate cargo tanks so that they can carry LPG and ammonia at the same time, adjusting flexibly to demand patterns.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen distribution" ], "trl": [ null, null, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Hydrogen may be traded as ammonia, as there is already a market for ammonia and it is easier to transport than liquefied hydrogen. Ammonia tankers will be needed, particularly at import and export ports, to enable this trade.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Aquifer storage", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Aquifer storage", "name": "Aquifer storage", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "H2 storage", "Underground storage" ], "description": "Aquifers are similar to natural gas reservoirs in that they are porous sedimentary rock structures, but contain water instead of natural gas. The main requirements for storage are the presence of a reservoir with a dome shape or structural fault to allow the gas to be trapped at the top of the structure, and the presence of a seal over the reservoir consisting of an impermeable formation. All of the challenges identified for depleted gas fields are relevant to aquifers, but aquifers present additional challenges. Unlike depleted gas fields, which are known to be tight because they were originally filled with gas, aquifers may not be tight on all sides and extensive geological investigation is required to determine whether there are pathways for the gas to escape. With the exception of existing aquifer storage and geothermal production sites, aquifers are undeveloped, with no production wells or surface facilities. As aquifers are water-bearing, moving water can cause significant hydrogen trapping during hydrogen injection, resulting in hydrogen loss. Compared to salt caverns and depleted gas reservoirs, aquifers have the advantage of being more widely available.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen storage" ], "trl": [ null, null, 3, 3, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "As hydrogen supply expands, underground geological facilities could be needed for storage to balance supply fluctuations caused by variable renewable electricity used in electrolysers and from seasonal changes in demand, as well as to bolster energy security. The role of porous reservoirs in providing short-term flexibility may be limited, but they could enhance security of supply due to the larger storage capacities.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Depleted gas fields storage", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Depleted gas fields storage", "name": "Depleted gas fields storage", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "H2 storage", "Underground storage" ], "description": "Depleted natural gas reservoirs are underground geological structures that naturally contained hydrocarbons and, once depleted, can be used to store gas. Depleted reservoirs consist of porous, permeable sedimentary rocks located underneath an impermeable cap rock and sealed on all sides by impermeable rocks. Depending on the reservoir size and allowable pressures (in some cases a few hundred bars), it may be possible to store up to several billion cubic meters of gas. The injection and withdrawal rates of porous structures are limited by the permeability of the rock, being generally more adequate for balancing seasonal fluctuations, due to their large storage capacity, and less for short-term variations. The proportion of cushion gas in pore storages is typically 50-60% of their total gas capacity, higher when compared to salt caverns. Hydrogen’s higher compressibility factor, diffusivity, and lower viscosity should be further evaluated, as it may be more difficult to contain than natural gas. Hydrogen is also more reactive than natural gas, and in the presence of sulphate-reducing bacteria reacts with sulphate-containing minerals to produce hydrogen sulphide, a contaminant, also leading to hydrogen losses. It also reacts with CO2 and carbon-containing minerals in the presence of methanogenic bacteria to produce methane. Therefore, further validation and testing, both in the laboratory and in a real subsurface environment, is required to verify and quantify seal and reservoir integrity, dynamic flow processes (important for fast-cycling injection and withdrawal performance), hydrogen recoverability, geochemical reactivity and potential hydrogen consumption and conversion by microorganisms. Advantages to depleted gas fields as hydrogen storage are that they are larger in volume than salt caverns, and their geology is already well understood from being in operation for natural gas. Compared to the development of new salt caverns, they already have a well infrastructure for natural gas, some of which can be potentially retrofitted or repurposed for hydrogen.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen storage" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "As hydrogen supply expands, underground geological facilities could be needed for storage to balance supply fluctuations caused by variable renewable electricity used in electrolysers and from seasonal changes in demand, as well as to bolster energy security. The role of porous reservoirs in providing short-term flexibility may be limited, but they could enhance security of supply due to the larger storage capacities.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Fast-cycling salt cavern storage", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Fast-cycling salt cavern storage", "name": "Fast-cycling salt cavern storage", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "H2 storage", "Underground storage" ], "description": "Salt caverns are artificial cavities in underground salt formations created by the controlled dissolution of rock salt through the injection of water, which returns to the surface as brine and must be disposed of in an appropriate manner. Salt caverns are suitable for the storage of pure hydrogen due to the low cushion gas requirement (typically around 30% of capacity), the high sealing capacity of rock salt and the inert nature of the salt structures, which limits contamination of the stored hydrogen. The geographical availability of salt caverns is limited. Salt cavern storage is considered to be flexible and would allow several cycles of gas injection and withdrawal per year. However, ongoing research on hydrogen storage in salt caverns is still aimed at demonstrating safe operating limits when subjected to rapid cycling with rapid pressure changes. Most knowledge of the effects of cyclic stress regimes on fracturing and fault slip comes from studies of underground natural gas storage, and there is limited data on the effects of hydrogen, which is needed.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen storage" ], "trl": [ null, null, 5, 5, 5, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "As hydrogen supply expands, underground geological facilities could be needed for storage to balance supply fluctuations caused by variable renewable electricity used in electrolysers and from seasonal changes in demand, as well as to bolster energy security.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen blending in natural gas network", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Hydrogen blending in natural gas network", "name": "Hydrogen blending in natural gas network", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "H2 transmission and distribution" ], "description": "Hydrogen blending is the injection of certain amounts of hydrogen into a natural gas stream using existing natural gas infrastructure. Studies indicate that integrating blended hydrogen into the gas networks is feasible at levels of around 5-10 v% (volumetric share) with relatively minor upgrading, while in distribution networks, with polymer-based pipelines, shares of up to 20% would not require significant changes in the infrastructure, although the gas chromatographs should at least be adapted. While a 20% threshold will require some infrastructure upgrading, such as retrofitting the compressors, it seems to be the technical upper limit above which significant investments may be needed, in particular for some downstream installations and end-use equipment, although higher concentrations could be reached through R&D.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen distribution" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Blending has limited CO2 benefits given the low levels of admixing and lower energy density.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen deblending", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Hydrogen deblending", "name": "Hydrogen deblending", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "H2 transmission and distribution" ], "description": "Hydrogen deblending extracts pure hydrogen for dedicated uses as well as reasonably hydrogen-free natural gas from blended hydrogen and natural gas streams. Deblending allows for the extraction of pure hydrogen for dedicated uses (e.g. hydrogen fuel cells, feedstock) as well as reasonably hydrogen-free natural gas for gas quality-sensitive consumers (e.g. some industrial applications, feedstock, compressed natural gas refuelling stations). Deblending involves the separation of hydrogen from the methane-rich gas stream through different technologies or combinations among them, including gas permeation (e.g. polymer membrane, palladium membrane, carbon membrane, metal membranes, glass\/ceramic membranes), pressure swing adsorption (PSA or membrane-PSA) or cryogenic separation, with different degrees of selectivity and efficiency. Although gas separation technologies have been used in the industry for decades, the technology has not yet been used on a large scale, such as in a distribution network.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen distribution" ], "trl": [ null, null, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "If hydrogen blending is used as a method to transport hydrogen, deblending will be needed to ensure that end users that require the use of pure hydrogen can access the hydrogen blended in the gas grid.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen liquefaction", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Hydrogen liquefaction", "name": "Hydrogen liquefaction", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "Conditioning processes" ], "description": "Hydrogen liquefaction involves a multi-stage process of compression and cooling to -253 °C, so that it is liquefied and stored in cryogenic tanks, increasing its volumetric density. The process starts with hydrogen compression and an optional (liquid nitrogen) pre-cooling to -193 °C, followed by cryogenic cooling to -243 °C (including heat exchangers and ortho- to para- catalytic conversion) and a final isenthalpic expansion to bring hydrogen to liquid phase at -253 °C and 1 bar. Hydrogen liquefaction is an energy-intensive process, especially for compression. The most recent hydrogen liquefaction plants have an electricity consumption of approximately 10 kWh\/kg, equivalent to around 30% of the energy content (LHV) of hydrogen, and while hydrogen liquefaction is considered an established technology, efficiency improvements to values around 6 kWh\/kg are expected in larger plants. Electricity costs are only a fraction of the hydrogen liquefaction costs and the capital cost for liquefaction is also expected to decrease with further innovations.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen distribution" ], "trl": [ null, null, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Hydrogen liquefaction makes it possible to transport and store hydrogen at higher densities than compressed hydrogen, and although the technology has been available for decades, it still needs to be scaled up to reduce costs and improve efficiency.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen turbo compressors", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Hydrogen turbo compressors", "name": "Hydrogen turbo compressors", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "H2 transmission and distribution" ], "description": "Hydrogen has a lower molar mass and a higher volumetric flow than natural gas, which requires higher compression effort, and its smaller molecular size also poses an additional challenge for sealing to minimise external leakage. For relatively large volumetric flows and moderate pressure lifts (<200 bar), such as for hydrogen pipeline transmission and underground storage, centrifugal type turbo-compressors will be needed, and although they have been used for petrochemical applications, their efficiency remains low. In a centrifugal compressor, the high-speed rotation of the impeller imposes high-velocity energy into the gas, which is then converted to pressure. Research is testing hydrogen-resistant impeller materials that can withstand higher centrifugal forces (i.e. increase tip speed) and hydrogen embrittlement. In addition to the high tip speed and choice of impeller material, the method of mounting the impeller to the shaft would differ from that of a typical hydrocarbon centrifugal compressor.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen distribution" ], "trl": [ null, null, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Hydrogen turbo compressors are needed to enable compressed hydrogen to move efficiently.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Lined hard rock cavern storage", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Lined hard rock cavern storage", "name": "Lined hard rock cavern storage", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "H2 storage", "Underground storage" ], "description": "Lined hard rock caverns are artificial structures consisting of caverns created in metamorphic or igneous rock in geographical areas where salt or depleted fields cannot be exploited. The caverns are lined with a layer of concrete to create smooth walls, which are then lined with steel. Because they are carefully lined, hard rock caverns have no risk of contamination and can be operated at higher pressures than other structures, but steel embrittlement due to hydrogen exposure must be avoided. Hard rock caverns can experience several injection and withdrawal cycles per year, making them well suited for peak load purposes. They require relatively little cushion gas, but are expensive to develop. The construction process, such as rock excavation, is mature, but the development of hydrogen-resistant liners and leak-free connections is challenging. Compared to salt caverns or depleted fields, rock caverns are developed at shallower depths (up to several hundred metres) and require shallow basement rock, which is not always available.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen storage" ], "trl": [ null, null, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "As hydrogen supply expands, underground geological facilities could be needed for storage to balance supply fluctuations caused by variable renewable electricity used in electrolysers and from seasonal changes in demand, as well as to bolster energy security.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Liquefied hydrogen tanker", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Liquefied hydrogen tanker", "name": "Liquefied hydrogen tanker", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "H2 shipping" ], "description": "A liquefied hydrogen tanker is a ship designed to transport liquefied hydrogen (LH2). Shipping LH2 is similar to liquefied natural gas (LNG), but as the boiling point of hydrogen (-253 °C) is much lower than that of natural gas (-162 °C), special thermal insulation is needed to minimise high boil-off gas rates, for example, using double-shell vacuum insulation tanks or membrane-based insulation systems. In addition, LH2 ships aim to use hydrogen boil-off gas as fuel for the loaded leg of the journey, providing a low emission shipping fuel and at the same time preventing venting it.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen distribution" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Large liquefied hydrogen tanks may be required to enable hydrogen trading and medium- to large-scale storage in regions without geological conditions for underground storage.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Liquid hydrogen storage tank", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Liquid hydrogen storage tank", "name": "Liquid hydrogen storage tank", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "H2 storage", "Aboveground storage" ], "description": "The density of pure hydrogen is increased via its liquefaction to 70 kg\/m3 at 1 bar. Due to the low boiling point of hydrogen (-253 °C) compared to natural gas (-162 °C), the design of cryogenic storage tanks seeks to minimise boil-off gas, preventing heat inleak. If hydrogen is evaporated, it must be vented to avoid an increase in the pressure in the storage tank. Small tanks are usually cylindrical but for larger volumes spherical tanks are used to minimise the surface-to-volume ratio, decreasing heat transfer. Liquid hydrogen storage tanks often feature a double-shell vacuum insulation, which minimises heat transfer via conduction and convection, and the space between the tank walls contains additional insulation materials. Cryogenic tanks are lighter than pressure vessels; however, liquefaction is an energy-intensive process compared to compression. Today, large-scale liquid hydrogen storage technology is relatively similar to that of the 1960s; however, design innovation is still needed to further scale up the tank size.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen storage" ], "trl": [ null, null, 8, 8, 8, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Liquefied hydrogen storage will be needed to support hydrogen distribution, hydrogen vehicle fleets and trade terminals in ports, especially in those regions where underground geological storage may not be possible.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Liquid organic hydrogen carrier tanker", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Liquid organic hydrogen carrier tanker", "name": "Liquid organic hydrogen carrier tanker", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "H2 shipping" ], "description": "Liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs) can be transported using existing ships and port infrastructure. LOHC can be transported in chemical tankers, whose tanks are specially coated, for example, with phenolic epoxy, stainless steel or zinc paint, and may have dedicated piping arrangements to carry different cargoes. The type of coating may determine the chemical that can be transported. Product tankers, which are a type of oil tanker, carry refined oil and are often designed to carry chemical cargoes as well, and may be capable of transporting LOHCs. Chemical tankers typically range in size from 5 000 to 35 000 deadweight tonnage (dwt), while product tankers range in size from 35 000 to 120 000 dwt. Depending on the chemicals used as LOHCs, the type of tanker that can be used may differ and there may also be some size restrictions at ports due to safety.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen distribution" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", "C", "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Liquid organic hydrogen carriers can be transported in existing chemical tankers.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Liquid organic hydrogen carriers", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Liquid organic hydrogen carriers", "name": "Liquid organic hydrogen carriers", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "Conditioning processes" ], "description": "Liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs) are organic molecules that can store hydrogen through a catalytic exothermic hydrogenation reaction at a certain pressure and mild temperature to produce a hydrogen-rich molecule, releasing heat. Subsequently, this hydrogen-rich molecule will be dehydrogenated in an endothermic catalytic reaction, which requires high temperature and mild pressure to produce the original organic molecule and hydrogen. Although there is some degradation during the dehydrogenation process, the original organic molecule is reused in the following hydrogenation stages. LOHCs must allow reasonably high hydrogen storage capacity (>5.5 wt%), and should be safe to handle (non-toxic, non-flammable, non-explosive), abundant and cheap. Some LOHCs are cycloalkanes, N-substituted heterocycles, 1,2-BN-heterocycles, liquid inorganic hydrides, and methanol and formic acid. Currently, however, the hydrogenation and dehydrogenation processes require energy, corresponding to around 35-40% of the energy content of the stored hydrogen, because, among other things, dehydrogenation temperatures are high. Research seeks to improve the overall efficiency of using LOHCs by looking for improved catalysts that enable dehydrogenation at lower temperatures (<150 °C) with limited use of precious metals, efficient heat management and higher hydrogen recovery rates after purification.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen distribution" ], "trl": [ null, null, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Transporting hydrogen using LOHCs allows existing oil infrastructure to be reused, but the dehydrogenation process requires significant amounts of energy.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Metal hydrides storage", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Metal hydrides storage", "name": "Metal hydrides storage", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "H2 storage", "Materials-based storage" ], "description": "Chemical storage of hydrogen through absorption\/desorption, which involves the chemical binding of atomic hydrogen within the structure of a solid material. Hydrogen release from metal hydrides can be achieved in two main ways, mostly via heating (thermolysis) or through reaction with water (hydrolysis). Storage materials should have certain characteristics such as rapid kinetics, good reversibility, high safety, affordable price and high storage capacity at moderate operating temperature and pressure. Metallic based hydrides can compress hydrogen based on their thermodynamic stability by using waste heat. It is expected as metal hydride compressor to supply high pressure hydrogen. Several metallic\/metallic-based materials can absorb hydrogen with those characteristics, and hydrides of lightweight elements such as boron and aluminium and some transition metals, such as titanium and zirconium have shown potential for use as hydrogen storage materials. Metallic based hydrides suitable for hydrogen storage are elemental hydrides (e.g. MgH2), interstitial hydrides (e.g. LaNi5, TiFe) and complex metal hydrides (e.g. NaAlH4, LiBH4, NaBH4, Mg(BH4)2). Challenges associated with the use of hydrides are high weight and low hydrogen storage capacity for low-temperature hydrides and slow kinetics and high temperatures for relatively lighter hydrides. Latest research seeks to enhance hydrogen absorption\/desorption kinetics at moderate temperatures and high storage capacity by adding catalysts, alloying with other elements and nano-structuring. Metal hydrides are good solutions for stationary use where the weight is not a problem and could also be used in some maritime applications. Furthermore, hydrogen storage in metal hydrides does not pose safety challenges, as it is stored at low pressure and uses rather low temperatures, and hydrogen is only released from the material when it is heated up. The use of low-temperature metal hydrides for hydrogen storage in mobile applications was established in 2003 with the completion of the first submarines of the U212A series by HDW (now Thyssen Krupp Marine Systems) and its export class U214 in 2004.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen storage" ], "trl": [ null, null, 4, 4, 4, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Small- and medium-scale storage will be needed for supporting stationary storage for distributed generation of hydrogen.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "New hydrogen pipelines", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > New hydrogen pipelines", "name": "New hydrogen pipelines", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "H2 transmission and distribution" ], "description": "The construction of inland hydrogen transmission pipelines is regulated by the ASME B31.12 standard and although it is a mature technology, the characteristics of existing hydrogen pipelines differ from the features required for new pipelines. Currently, the largest hydrogen pipelines are 18 inches in diameter, whereas new hydrogen pipelines could be up to 36-48 inches in diameter; low steel grades are used (generally below X52), whereas higher steel grades may be preferred in new pipelines to reduce the amount of steel required without compromising integrity; and existing pipelines operate under static loads, whereas future pipelines should be able to withstand pressure variations due to cyclic loading and linepack. In addition, there is no standard for the construction of offshore hydrogen pipelines and research is underway to identify criteria that will ensure the highest level of safety while reducing costs.\nHydrogen has been transported by pipeline since 1938, with the construction of the first hydrogen pipeline, made of a standard grade of steel, with a 250-300 mm diameter and a length of 240 km. Since then, there are about 2600 km of hydrogen pipelines operating in the United States, 2000 km in Europe, 400 km in China and 200 km in Korea.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen distribution" ], "trl": [ null, null, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "As low-emission hydrogen production volumes increase and transport distances expand, a network of hydrogen pipelines will need to be developed to connect areas with good resources for production to storage sites and demand centres. Pipeline networks with large transmission trunklines can efficiently transport large volumes of hydrogen over hundreds of kilometres.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Pressure vessel storage", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Pressure vessel storage", "name": "Pressure vessel storage", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "H2 storage", "Aboveground storage" ], "description": "Pressure vessels are the most established hydrogen storage technology and involve the physical storage of compressed hydrogen gas in high-pressure vessels for stationary or mobile (such as tube trailers) applications. The pressure rating and internal volume of the container determines the quantity of hydrogen it can hold, and they are often classified into four types: I) vessel made of metal, usually steel (around 1 wt% hydrogen); II) vessel made of a thick metallic liner hoop wrapped with a fibre-resin composite; III) vessel made of a metallic liner fully-wrapped with a fibre-resin composite; IV) vessel made of polymeric liner fully-wrapped with a fibre-resin composite (around 5.3 wt% hydrogen) and V) fully composite vessel (under consideration). The choice of pressure vessel will depend on the final application, being a compromise between volumetric density and cost. Pressure vessels are already used in the chemicals industry and at hydrogen refuelling stations, mostly all-steel tanks. Trucks that haul gaseous hydrogen compress it to pressures of around 180-250 bar into steel vessels (long tubes) carrying approximately 380 kg onboard and limited by the weight of the vessel. However, recently light-weight composite storage vessels have been developed that have capacities of 560-900 kg of hydrogen per trailer, increasing considerably the hauling efficiency per trip. Types III-IV have gravimetric capacities that exceed four times that of steel vessels working on the same pressure, can endure high pressures and are used in the vehicle industry.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen storage" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", "C", "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Compressed hydrogen storage in pressure vessels will be needed in vehicle fleets and to balance fluctuations from hydrogen production.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Repurposed natural gas pipelines", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Repurposed natural gas pipelines", "name": "Repurposed natural gas pipelines", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "H2 transmission and distribution" ], "description": "Repurposing implies converting an existing natural gas pipeline into a dedicated hydrogen pipeline. The main elements of the conversion process include nitrogen purging to remove undesirable parts, replacement of compressors, a thorough inspection of the pipeline and the integrity of its components, and replacements of valves and other leak-prone parts, and reconfiguring or replacing gas meters. Due to differences in chemical properties, hydrogen can accelerate pipe degradation through a process known as hydrogen embrittlement, whereby hydrogen induces cracks in the steel. A range of solutions exists to combat this: regularly monitor the integrity of the pipeline, e.g. through in-line inspections (ILI) and pigging; apply a hydrogen barrier coating to protect the pipeline; lower the pipeline pressure until the required threshold value for safe operation is met; and minimise pressure swings. The optimal approach will depend on transport capacity requirements, status of the existing pipeline (e.g. existing fractures) and trade-offs between capital and operating expenditure. There are still challenges on the repurposing of offshore gas pipelines, as the monitoring of the pipeline with the current technology is difficult, and sometimes there is no detailed documentation on the pipeline operation over past years. There is no standard for offshore hydrogen pipelines, unlike the ASME B31.12 for onshore hydrogen pipelines.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen distribution" ], "trl": [ null, null, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Repurposing existing natural gas pipelines to carry hydrogen avoids decommissioning them before the end of their technical lifetime and reduces new material needs, lowering costs and benefiting the environment.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Salt cavern storage", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Salt cavern storage", "name": "Salt cavern storage", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "H2 storage", "Underground storage" ], "description": "Salt caverns are artificial cavities in underground salt formations created by the controlled dissolution of rock salt through the injection of water, which returns to the surface as brine and must be disposed of in an appropriate manner. Salt caverns are suitable for the storage of pure hydrogen due to the low cushion gas requirement (typically around 30% of capacity), the high sealing capacity of rock salt and the inert nature of the salt structures, which limits contamination of the stored hydrogen. The geographical availability of salt caverns is limited. Salt cavern storage is considered to be flexible and would allow several cycles of gas injection and withdrawal per year. Experience to date has shown that hydrogen can be effectively stored in salt caverns under low-frequency cyclic loading conditions. Ongoing research into hydrogen storage in salt caverns is aimed at demonstrating the feasibility of re-using caverns that have been used for natural gas and oil storage, particularly the risks of contamination and loss of stored hydrogen due to microbial activity.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen storage" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "As hydrogen supply expands, underground geological facilities could be needed for storage to balance supply fluctuations caused by variable renewable electricity used in electrolysers and from seasonal changes in demand, as well as to bolster energy security.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Truck transport", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Truck transport", "name": "Truck transport", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "H2 infrastructure", "H2 transmission and distribution" ], "description": "Hydrogen can be transported to consumers with relatively small demands in multi-element gas container trailers, such as steel high-pressure tubes and in lighter composite pressure vessels (types II and III). Trucks that haul gaseous hydrogen in steel tubes compress it to pressures of around 180-250 bar, carrying approximately 380 kg onboard and limited by the weight of the tubes. However, recently light-weight composite storage vessels are increasingly used, with capacities of 560-900 kg of hydrogen per trailer (350-500 bar), increasing considerably the hauling efficiency per trip. In addition, larger volumes of hydrogen can also be transported in cryogenic vessel trailers, which can carry around 1 500-3 000 kg of hydrogen per trip. Liquid hydrogen trailers are thermo-insulated to minimise hydrogen boil-off rate.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen distribution" ], "trl": [ null, null, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "At small scales and relatively short distances, the cheapest way to transport hydrogen is by truck.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydropower > Hydropower", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Hydropower", "name": "Hydropower", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Hydropower" ], "description": "Hydropower converts the energy from falling water into electricity. It is a mature and cost-competitive technology, today providing 16% of global electricity generation. Hydropower plants can be classified in three functional categories: run-of-river, reservoir (or storage), and pumped storage plants.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", "C", "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Remains an important clean electricity source, also providing flexibility to the electricity system.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Advanced power control", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Advanced power control", "name": "Advanced power control", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "High temperature", "Electrical heating" ], "description": "Advanced power controllers are programmed to adapt to the specific needs of a facility, anticipating the needs of the various equipment to adapt the power supply. Some of the key functionality are load balancing and load shedding. Load balancing spreads energy use evenly across electric devices to generate almost constant load curves. Many power providers apply penalties based on load peaks, so such method can provide cost savings even if the total energy consumption is the same. Load shedding can strategically reduce the power consumption of certain systems when the grid is under stress to protect other sensitive processes. Some versions can even take advantage of the heating system thermal inertial to modulate power demand for short periods of time without impact on the product quality.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Advanced power controllers participate to a better integration of industrial electrification with the develoment of variable renewable power. They bring stability to grid operators and security for industries. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ammonia (high temperature heating)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Ammonia (high temperature heating)", "name": "Ammonia (high temperature heating)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "High temperature", "Fuel-based heating" ], "description": "Ammonia can provide heat to various industrial processes in place of natural gas especially for high temperature applications.", "supplyChain": [ "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "While this could be an option, there is limited exploration of this technology so far.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ammonia (low temperature heating)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Ammonia (low temperature heating)", "name": "Ammonia (low temperature heating)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "Low to medium temperature", "Fuel-based heating" ], "description": "Ammonia can provide heat to low temperature heating in industrial boilers in place of natural gas.", "supplyChain": [ "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 3, 3, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "While there has been some exploration of this, there hasn't been the widescale exploration to indicate this as a primary decarbonisation option for low temperature heat as yet.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Biomethane (high temperature heating)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Biomethane (high temperature heating)", "name": "Biomethane (high temperature heating)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "High temperature", "Fuel-based heating" ], "description": "Biomethane, also called renewable natural gas, can provide heat to various industrial processes in place of natural gas. **See Supply Technology Map for biomethane production options**", "supplyChain": [ "Heat generation", "Biofuels use" ], "trl": [ null, null, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Biomass can play an important role in reducing emissions from industrial heat requirements. However, limitations on sustainable biomass availability and competition from other sectors will put an upper limit on its potential.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Biomethane (low temperature heating)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Biomethane (low temperature heating)", "name": "Biomethane (low temperature heating)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "Low to medium temperature", "Fuel-based heating" ], "description": "Biomethane, also called renewable natural gas, can provide heat to various industrial processes in place of natural gas. **See Supply Technology Map for biomethane production options**", "supplyChain": [ "Heat generation", "Biofuels use" ], "trl": [ null, null, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Biomass can play an important role in reducing emissions from industrial heat requirements. However, limitations on sustainable biomass availability and competition from other sectors will put an upper limit on its potential.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Direct heat from variable renewables (high temperature heating)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Direct heat from variable renewables (high temperature heating)", "name": "Direct heat from variable renewables (high temperature heating)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "High temperature", "Other heating" ], "description": "A concentrated solar power (CSP) plant uses mirrors to concentrate solar radiation and convert it in high temperature heat. This can be used in different industrial processes that need high temperature heat, such as non-metallic particles treatment and clinker production.", "supplyChain": [ "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The technology has reasonable potential to replace fossil fuel use in various applications, and may prove technologically easier to apply than direct electrification of heat. However, it is still at a relatively early stage of development and would require considerable cost reductions to be competitive. Its application may be limited to areas with peak solar potential. Furthermore, replacing all process heat (as opposed to a part) with solar thermal will likely be challenging.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Electric arc and plasma arc furnaces (high temperature heating)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Electric arc and plasma arc furnaces (high temperature heating)", "name": "Electric arc and plasma arc furnaces (high temperature heating)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "High temperature", "Electrical heating" ], "description": "Electric arc furnaces are already commonly used in secondary steel production, while electric glass melting furnaces are used in glass production. Plasma arc furnaces are a special type of electric arc furnace that can produce heat as high as 5000 degrees Celsius, by passing a powerful electric current through particular gases such as argon. These furnaces are used today in some applications, mainly hazardous waste incineration and processing some metals (ex. titanium, tungsten). The technology offers the possibility to be adapted to other high temperature heat processes that are currently difficult to electrify.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 3, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This technology can replace fuel-fired ovens or furnaces in several processes, reducing on-site emissions. The use of renewable electricity can enable a CO2-free heating process. It may have good potential to electrify high temperature heat processes, although it remains at relatively early stages of development for key new applications.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Fluidised-bed boiler fuelled with biomass (low temperature heating)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Fluidised-bed boiler fuelled with biomass (low temperature heating)", "name": "Fluidised-bed boiler fuelled with biomass (low temperature heating)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "Low to medium temperature", "Fuel-based heating" ], "description": "Biomass fuels - such as wood, crop residues, wood pulp and chips, and municipal solid waste - are difficult to burn efficiently in conventional industrial furnaces due to their lower heating value and higher moisture content. Fluidised-bed boilers help overcome this challenge. They operate by burning the fuel within a hot bed of sand or other inert particles, which are fluidized by passing a pressurized fluid through them. This enables oxygen to reach the fuel more easily and thus improved combustion.", "supplyChain": [ "Heat generation", "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", "C", "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Biomass can play an important role in reducing emissions from industrial heat requirements. However, limitations on sustainable biomass availability and competition from other sectors will put an upper limit on its potential.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen (high temperature heating)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Hydrogen (high temperature heating)", "name": "Hydrogen (high temperature heating)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "High temperature", "Fuel-based heating" ], "description": "Hydrogen can provide heat to various industrial processes in place of natural gas, especially for high-temperature applications. This can be through the use of 100% hydrogen fuel, or through the use of a blend of a percentage of hydrogen within a natural gas fuel stream. While using a small percentage of hydrogen fuel (by volume) only replaces a small percentage of energy demand (by energy), this can in some cases be done with limited adjustments to industrial equipment.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 7, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Hydrogen heaters play an important role in light industries to replace fossil fuels in high temperature applications.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen (low temperature heating)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Hydrogen (low temperature heating)", "name": "Hydrogen (low temperature heating)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "Low to medium temperature", "Fuel-based heating" ], "description": "Hydrogen can provide heat to low temperature heating in industrial boilers in place of natural gas. These are commercially available and have been deployed in a bespoke fashion for industries which produce by-product hydrogen, such as the chloralkali industry.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Hydrogen heaters play an important role in light industries to replace fossil fuels in high temperature applications.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Induction (high temperature heating)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Induction (high temperature heating)", "name": "Induction (high temperature heating)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "High temperature", "Electrical heating" ], "description": "During induction, an electromagnetic field is generated when AC current flows through an inductor: this induces a current flow in a conductive material appositely placed nearby. The higher the current flow, the more the heat generated inside the object itself. If the field is raised enough to overcome the melting point, the material changes phase: this technology is used commonly for the melting of metals. While already commercial for some applications, research and development could expand the range of applications, further improve efficiency and reduce costs.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "High- to medium-temperature heat (greater than 100 °C) in industry is currently supplied mostly by fossil fuels. This technology can replace fuel-fired ovens and furnaces in several processes, reducing on-site emissions. The use of renewable electricity can enable a CO2-free heating process. Since induction furnaces are already commercial in some applications, they could provide good potential for further development for other applications.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Large-scale heat pump (low temperature heating)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Large-scale heat pump (low temperature heating)", "name": "Large-scale heat pump (low temperature heating)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "Low to medium temperature", "Electrical heating" ], "description": "Large, industrial sized heat pumps can use thermal energy from air, water or ground but also waste energy from buildings and processes to provide heating and cooling to industrial processes. Heat pumps are considered large if they exceed capacities of 100 kW. Current technology can easily reach the megawatt range with the largest units providing 100 MW.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Large-scale heat pumps are critical in electrifying industry and deeply decarbonising district heating and cooling networks", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Microwaves (low temperature heating)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Microwaves (low temperature heating)", "name": "Microwaves (low temperature heating)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "Low to medium temperature", "Electrical heating" ], "description": "Microwave heating is the generation of heat, internally, in non-conductive materials. The object is placed between two electrodes connected with a high-frequency generator (operative frequency is in the 100 to 10000 MHz range). The excitement of the molecules generates heat inside the material itself. The advantages are a rapid heat transfer, the absence of combustion products and the high speed of switching on the systems.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "This technology can replace fuel-fired ovens in several processes, reducing on-site emissions. The use of renewable electricity can guarantee a CO2-free heating process. Since microwave heating is already commercial in some applications, it could provide good potential for further development for other applications. In particular, its development for carbon fibre carbonisation could play an important role in substantially reducing emissions of producing carbon fibre, which may play an important role in lightweighting in a net zero world.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Photochemical heating (high temperature)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Photochemical heating (high temperature)", "name": "Photochemical heating (high temperature)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "High temperature", "Electrical heating" ], "description": "Microwave heating is the generation of heat, internally, in non-conductive materials. The object is placed between two electrodes connected with a high-frequency generator (operative frequency is in the 100 to 10000 MHz range). The excitement of the molecules generates heat inside the material itself. The advantages are a rapid heat transfer, the absence of combustion products and the high speed of switching on the systems.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This technology can replace fuel-fired ovens or furnaces in several processes, reducing on-site emissions. The use of renewable electricity can guarantee a CO2-free heating process. Since microwave heating is already commercial in some applications, it could provide good potential for further development for other applications and for higher temperatures. In particular, its development for carbon fibre carbonisation could play an important role in substantially reducing emissions of producing carbon fibre, which may play an important role in lightweighting in a net zero world.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Photochemical heating (low temperature)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Photochemical heating (low temperature)", "name": "Photochemical heating (low temperature)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "Low to medium temperature", "Electrical heating" ], "description": "Infrared radiation transmits heat through electromagnetic waves, heating objects directly, without the need to first heat the air in order to transmit heat to a product. It means higher heat transfer rates and faster time response, producing zero on-site emissions. Electric infrared radiation (IR) ovens offer an efficient and cost-effective alternative to convection ovens. In addition, they can provide fine control of IR wavelength in order to match specific requirements of an application. While already commercial for some applications, research and development could expand the range of applications, further improve efficiency and reduce costs.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "This technology can replace fuel-fired ovens, reducing on-site emissions. The use of renewable electricity can guarantee a CO2-free heating process. Thanks to reduced needs for maintenance and easy installation, the payback time is very competitive. Since infrared technologies are already commercial in some applications, they could provide good potential for further development for other applications.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Pyrolysis (high temperature heating)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Pyrolysis (high temperature heating)", "name": "Pyrolysis (high temperature heating)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "High temperature", "Fuel-based heating" ], "description": "Biomass can be converted to a coal-like material through torrefaction, in which biomass is heated to temperatures in the range of 400 to 800 °C in the absence of oxygen. The 'bio-coal' has characteristics more similar to coal than the original biomass, and thus could be used in various industrial processes where higher quality fuels are needed.", "supplyChain": [ "Heat generation", "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Biomass can play an important role in reducing emissions from industrial heat requirements. However, limitations on sustainable biomass availability and competition from other sectors will put an upper limit on its potential.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Radio waves (high temperature heating)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Radio waves (high temperature heating)", "name": "Radio waves (high temperature heating)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "High temperature", "Electrical heating" ], "description": "The use of radio waves allows the generation of heat, internally, in non-conductive materials. The object is placed between two electrodes connected with a high-frequency generator (operative frequency is in the 1 to 100 MHz range). The excitement of the molecules generates heat inside the material itself. The advantages are a rapid heat transfer, the absence of combustion products and the high speed of switching on the systems. RF systems are less expensive compared to microwave systems, but they are not as well suited for products with irregular shapes. Its potential for application includes drying, sintering, calcining, cooking, curing, pre-heating and speeding up chemical reactions.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This technology can replace fuel-fired ovens or furnaces in several processes, reducing on-site emissions. The use of renewable electricity can guarantee a CO2-free heating process. While used today in lower temperature heating applications, investigation of its use for higher temperature heating appears more limited.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Radio waves (low temperature heating)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Radio waves (low temperature heating)", "name": "Radio waves (low temperature heating)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "Low to medium temperature", "Electrical heating" ], "description": "The use of radio waves allows the generation of heat, internally, in non-conductive materials. The object is placed between two electrodes connected with a high-frequency generator (operative frequency is in the 1 to 100 MHz range). The excitement of the molecules generates heat inside the material itself. The advantages are a rapid heat transfer, the absence of combustion products and the high speed of switching on the systems. RF systems are less expensive compared to microwave systems, but they are not as well suited for products with irregular shapes. Its potential for application includes drying, sintering, calcining, cooking, curing, pre-heating and speeding up chemical reactions.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "This technology can replace fuel-fired ovens in several processes, reducing on-site emissions. The use of renewable electricity can guarantee a CO2-free heating process. While used today in lower temperature heating applications, investigation of its use for higher temperature heating appears more limited.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Rotary compression heater (high temperature heating)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Rotary compression heater (high temperature heating)", "name": "Rotary compression heater (high temperature heating)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "High temperature", "Electrical heating" ], "description": "Compression heating involves the rotating turbines imposing rapid acceleration and deceleration to gases, increasing their heat. One example of these, Coolbrook's RotoDynamic Heater (RDH) is a type of electric heater able to reach temperatures of 1700°C. This could be used in many industrial sectors, such as chemicals and cement.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 6, 6, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Torrefaction (low temperature heating)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Torrefaction (low temperature heating)", "name": "Torrefaction (low temperature heating)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "Low to medium temperature", "Fuel-based heating" ], "description": "Biomass can be converted to a coal-like material through torrefaction, in which biomass is heated to temperatures in the range of 200 °C to 400 °C in the absence of oxygen. The 'bio-coal' has characteristics more similar to coal than the original biomass, and thus could be used in various industrial processes where higher quality fuels are needed.", "supplyChain": [ "Heat generation", "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Biomass can play an important role in reducing emissions from industrial heat requirements. However, limitations on sustainable biomass availability and competition from other sectors will put an upper limit on its potential.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ultra-violet (high temperature heating)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Ultra-violet (high temperature heating)", "name": "Ultra-violet (high temperature heating)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "High temperature", "Electrical heating" ], "description": "Ultraviolet radiation (UV) is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum between 40 and 400 nm, with higher frequency and higher energy than the visible light. The use of UV light to heat objects is a photochemical process used to cure or instantly harden special compounds. The use of an UV lamp provides the radiant energy necessary to drive the polymerization reaction. This technology can be applied in several industrial processes like the automotive part manufacturing, printing, food packaging and electronics.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This technology can reduce the on-site emissions of thermal processes, with a much faster (both in start-up and shut-down phases) and more efficient heating solution. The use of renewable electricity can guarantee a CO2-free heating process. It may have good potential for medium temperature heat applications, but its applications in high temperature heat is likely limited.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ultra-violet (low temperature heating)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Ultra-violet (low temperature heating)", "name": "Ultra-violet (low temperature heating)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Industrial heating", "Low to medium temperature", "Electrical heating" ], "description": "Ultraviolet radiation (UV) is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum between 40 and 400 nm, with higher frequency and higher energy than the visible light. The use of UV light to heat objects is a photochemical process used to cure or instantly harden special compounds. The use of an UV lamp provides the radiant energy necessary to drive the polymerization reaction. This technology can be applied in several industrial processes like the automotive part manufacturing, printing, food packaging and electronics.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "This technology can reduce the on-site emissions of thermal processes, with a much faster (both in start-up and shut-down phases) and more efficient heating solution. The use of renewable electricity can guarantee a CO2-free heating process. It may have good potential for medium temperature heat applications.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Carbon recycling through thermochemical coupling", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Carbon recycling through thermochemical coupling", "name": "Carbon recycling through thermochemical coupling", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "With carbon capture and usage" ], "description": "Carbon monoxide is the main reducing agent used in conventional blast furnace steelmaking, produced in situ from the partial oxidation of coke. This process proposes to capture and recycle the carbon dioxide produced from this using thermochemical splitting of CO2. This creates a closed carbon loop, decoupling the steel production from the need for additional coke use.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 utilisation" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This is a very early stage potential technology solution.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Charge and injection carbon substitution with biomass sources", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Charge and injection carbon substitution with biomass sources", "name": "Charge and injection carbon substitution with biomass sources", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "Some carbon is required in a electric arc furnace both to add to the carbon content of the steel and to generate gas to allow slag to foam. This results in CO2 emissions, and if biogenic sources of carbon can be used, such as biomass, these emissions can be reduced or avoided.", "supplyChain": [ "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Relatively low impact on steel sector emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Chemical absorption carbon capture and process gas hydrogen enrichment (blast furnace)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Chemical absorption carbon capture and process gas hydrogen enrichment (blast furnace)", "name": "Chemical absorption carbon capture and process gas hydrogen enrichment (blast furnace)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "With carbon capture and usage" ], "description": "Process gas hydrogen enrichment and CO2 capture, used alone or in combination, are options for reducing emissions from blast furnaces, the current dominant primary steelmaking technology that relies primarily on coal and coke (which is derived from coal). CO2 capture involves capturing CO2 from the flue gases, with subsequent transportation for storage. Hydrogen enrichment involves capturing process gases and recirculating them after reheating (to 900 °C) into the blast furnace as a reducing agent to lower requirements for coke and other fuels. The recirculated gas can be any CO and H2 source, with CO and H2 from coke oven gas and basic oxygen furnace gas the easiest to recover. Additionally, CO2 from blast furnace gas can be recovered and reformed into CO and H2, for use in the blast furnace or for external uses. Surplus CO2 could be transported for storage, further reducing emissions.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "CO2 utilisation" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The top gas recycling blast furnace would enable reducing the carbon input needs avoiding 30% CO2 emissions compared to a standard BF, and integration of CCUS would enable a reduction of up to 55-60% of the overall CO2 emissions per tonne of steel produced compared to a standard steel mill. However, capturing a large portion of emissions would likely be more capital intensive and costly than competing low emission primary steel production technologies, due to the need to capture CO2 from multiple sources, and the technology is at earlier stages of development compared to competing options that offer larger CO2 emission reductions. An advantage is that the technology can be applied as a retrofit to existing blast furnaces.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Conversion of steel offgases to chemicals and fuels (blast furnace)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Conversion of steel offgases to chemicals and fuels (blast furnace)", "name": "Conversion of steel offgases to chemicals and fuels (blast furnace)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "With carbon capture and usage" ], "description": "This technology \"recycles\" waste gases from steel plants (e.g. blast furnace gas and coke oven gas) into chemicals, thus using the CO2 twice and delaying its release.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 utilisation" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This technology could help reduce emissions from a steel plant and has the benefit of using CO2 emissions twice, just potentially providing reductions in the lifecycle assessed (LCA) CO2 footprint of chemicals produced through these routes. The total savings depend on what input it is displacing, since the CO2 is emitted at the end of the chemical product's life. The net impact also depends on what the current use of steel off-gases is (e.g. flaring vs power generation) compared to their use as alternative feedstock in chemicals production. A further advantage is that this technology could help facilitate a wider penetration of variable renewable power generation by providing demand load flexibility to the system in chemical production plants.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Conversion of steel offgases to ethanol (blast furnace)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Conversion of steel offgases to ethanol (blast furnace)", "name": "Conversion of steel offgases to ethanol (blast furnace)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "With carbon capture and usage" ], "description": "This technology \"recycles\" waste gases from steel plants (e.g. blast furnace gas and coke oven gas) into ethanol, thus using the CO2 twice and delaying its release.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 utilisation" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "This technology could help reduce emissions from a steel plant and has the benefit of using CO2 emissions twice, thus potentially providing reductions in the lifecycle assessed (LCA) CO2 footprint of fuels. Total savings depend on what fuel is displaced, since unless the CO2 is captured from the use of fuels, the CO2 is in the end emitted. Furthermore, the net impact depends on what the current use of offgases is (e.g. flaring vs power generation) compared to their uses as alternative feedstock for ethanol production.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "DRI production based on 100% electrolytic hydrogen", "breadcrumb": "Industry > DRI production based on 100% electrolytic hydrogen", "name": "DRI production based on 100% electrolytic hydrogen", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "Direct reduced iron (DRI)" ], "description": "The 100% electrolytic hydrogen DRI route involves direct reduction of iron ore - that is, reducing iron ore to iron without melting - using only electrolytic hydrogen gas rather than natural gas or coal. This can use high grade ore formed into direct reduction pellets, or variants which use technologies such as fluidised beds to use lower grade iron ore fines. (See also entries for Direct reduced iron - Improved ore refining methods and DRI production based on natural gas with high levels of electrolytic hydrogen)", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use" ], "trl": [ 5, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The use of hydrogen from renewable electricity in this process technology would enable a 98% reduction in CO2 emissions compared to a reference blast furnace. Competing options (e.g. smelting reduction with CCS) are at higher TRL and expected to be at lower cost; however they achieve lower emissions reduction.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "DRI production based on biogenic reduction gas", "breadcrumb": "Industry > DRI production based on biogenic reduction gas", "name": "DRI production based on biogenic reduction gas", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "Direct reduced iron (DRI)" ], "description": "Using a reduction agent of biogenic origin would eliminate fossil-based CO2 emissions from iron production. To not this includes not only biomethane, but also all types of biogenic sources.", "supplyChain": [ "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ null, null, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "DRI production based on chemical absorption carbon capture", "breadcrumb": "Industry > DRI production based on chemical absorption carbon capture", "name": "DRI production based on chemical absorption carbon capture", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "Direct reduced iron (DRI)" ], "description": "Direct reduced iron plants - in which iron ore is reduced to iron without melting, typically using natural gas or coal - could be equipped with chemical absorption-based CO2 capture, a common process operation based on the reaction between CO2 and a chemical solvent (e.g. amine-based). The CO2 is released at temperatures typically in the range 120 °C to 150 °C and the solvent is regenerated for further operation.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "This technology has good potential for emissions reductions. However, its use is likely to be limited to regions with high availability of inexpensive natural gas. Otherwise the process would likely be more expensive than other potential alternatives based on coal or even hydrogen-based renewables.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "DRI production based on natural gas with high levels of electrolytic hydrogen", "breadcrumb": "Industry > DRI production based on natural gas with high levels of electrolytic hydrogen", "name": "DRI production based on natural gas with high levels of electrolytic hydrogen", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "Direct reduced iron (DRI)" ], "description": "Direct reduced iron plants - in which iron ore is reduced to iron without melting - typically use natural gas or coal. The emissions of the process are strongly reduced by substituting a portion of the natural gas or coal with hydrogen, produced by electrolysis of water using fossil-free electricity. The current commercial technology is already suited to work with up to 30% natural gas displacement by hydrogen, without significant changes, but higher blends are also under exploration. (See also entries for Direct reduced iron - Improved ore refining methods and Direct reduced iron based on 100% electrolytic hydrogen)", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Increasing replacement of natural gas by hydrogen from renewable electricity in this process technology would enable reduction of between 10% to 82% in CO2 emissions compared to the standard blast furnace route. While this technology has reasonable potential, alternatives are likely to have lower costs and\/or lead to larger emission reductions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "DRI production based on physical adsorption carbon capture", "breadcrumb": "Industry > DRI production based on physical adsorption carbon capture", "name": "DRI production based on physical adsorption carbon capture", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "Direct reduced iron (DRI)" ], "description": "Direct reduced iron plants - in which iron ore is reduced to iron without melting, typically using natural gas or coal - could be equipped with physical adsorption-based CO2 capture, in which molecules are captured on the surface of selective materials called adsorbents. Desorption of the CO2 (release from the surface) may be achieved using pressure swing adsorption (PSA), performed at high pressure, or Vacuum Swing Adsorption (VSA), which operates at ambient pressure. A hybrid configuration also exists, known as Vacuum Pressure Swing Adsorption (VPSA).", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This technology has good potential for emissions reductions - while the current commercial DRI with CCS uses chemical absorption, it is possible and would be less costly to use VPS. Its use is likely to be limited to regions with high availability of inexpensive natural gas. Otherwise the process would likely be more expensive than other potential alternatives based on coal or even hydrogen-based renewables.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "DRI production using ammonia as a reductant", "breadcrumb": "Industry > DRI production using ammonia as a reductant", "name": "DRI production using ammonia as a reductant", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "Direct reduced iron (DRI)" ], "description": "The direct use of ammonia has been proposed as a reductant for steel, allowing it to be used directly rather than as a hydrogen carrier. This might have applications in regions such as Japan, where ammonia is being investigated as a hydrogen carrier for imports.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, null, 2, 2, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This is a very early stage potential technology solution.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "DRI production using hydrogen in an airtight kiln", "breadcrumb": "Industry > DRI production using hydrogen in an airtight kiln", "name": "DRI production using hydrogen in an airtight kiln", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "Direct reduced iron (DRI)" ], "description": "Direct reduced iron plants - in which iron ore is reduced to iron without melting - typically use natural gas or coal. The emissions of the process are strongly reduced by replacing the natural gas or coal with hydrogen, produced by electrolysis of water using fossil-free electricity. Here, reduction of iron ores takes place in an airtight kiln, unlike in other DRI technologies, using shaft furnaces, which can help use lower grades of iron ore fines.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Airtight kilns could be a cost-competitive and modular solution, using low-emissions hydrogen to significantly reduce the CO2 emissions from iron and steel production. So far, there is only one trial online and a first demonstration project in construction, but it could be a promising decarbonisation solution once validated.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "DRI production using improved ore refining methods and lower quality ores", "breadcrumb": "Industry > DRI production using improved ore refining methods and lower quality ores", "name": "DRI production using improved ore refining methods and lower quality ores", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "Direct reduced iron (DRI)" ], "description": "The direct reduced iron (DRI) process offers one potential pathway to zero-emission steelmaking, as it can use low-emission hydrogen as a reducing agent compared to other methods which are reliant on metallurgical coal. The DRI is then charged into an electric arc furnace (EAF) to turn it into steel. One problem with the pathway of DRI with an electric arc furnace, however, is that it relies on higher quality iron ore, with an iron content of at least 67%. Overall iron ore quality has been in decline for 20 years with iron content dropping and the level of impurities rising. Several solutions to this problem have emerged. These include: \n-Using a submerged arc furnace (SAF) melting stage after DRI production before sending it to a basic oxygen furnace.\n-Developing methods of producing direct reduced iron using lower quality ore.\n-Reducing iron through hydrogen-based fluidised bed reduction - a method that has demonstrated effectiveness in dealing with lower grade iron ore, and which does not require pelletisation.\n(See also entries for DRI production based on natural gas with high levels of electrolytic hydrogen and Direct reduced iron based on 100% electrolytic hydrogen)", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Required for wide-scale DRI.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Electrolytic hydrogen partially replacing injected coal (blast furnace)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Electrolytic hydrogen partially replacing injected coal (blast furnace)", "name": "Electrolytic hydrogen partially replacing injected coal (blast furnace)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "Shift in energy sources and electrification" ], "description": "Hydrogen can be used to some extent in blast furnaces, the current dominant primary steel-making technology that relies primarily on coal and coke (which is derived from coal). Hydrogen can replace a portion of injected coal, thus reducing the need for coal.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Partial replacement of hydrogen can help lower emissions from blast furnaces, including those already in operation. However, hydrogen is not able to replace all coal needs in the blast furnaces, and therefore this option only partially reduce emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Flash ironmaking", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Flash ironmaking", "name": "Flash ironmaking", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "In this process, finely ground iron ore is reduced with a reductant gas. This ''produces iron while bypassing palletisation or sintering as well as cokemaking steps'', and can result in fast and efficient reduction.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This reduction method could lower the CO2 emissions of steel. However, it is at much earlier stages of development compared to other low emission steel-making technologies.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "High temperature molten oxide electrolysis (> 1500°c)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > High temperature molten oxide electrolysis (> 1500°c)", "name": "High temperature molten oxide electrolysis (> 1500°c)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "Molten oxide electrolysis (MOE) is an electrometallurgical process used to produce liquid metal directly from oxide feedstocks. Electrons are the reducing agents, and the products of the reaction are pure metal and oxygen. The steelmaking process requires high temperatures of up to 2000 °C.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The use of renewable electricity would open a fully CO2 free production route for steel, and a reduction of about 30% of energy use compared to standard steel making. It can be designed to respond to electricity grid load balancing to integrate further variable renewables for power generation. However, it is at much earlier stages of development compared to other low emission steel-making technologies.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen for high-temperature heat for ancillary steelmaking processes", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Hydrogen for high-temperature heat for ancillary steelmaking processes", "name": "Hydrogen for high-temperature heat for ancillary steelmaking processes", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "Shift in energy sources and electrification" ], "description": "Hydrogen can be used to provide high temperature heat for ancillary processes, such as finishing processes (ex. rolling), material pre-heating, etc., and to replace the small amount of natural gas used in electric arc furnaces.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This reduction method could lower the CO2 emissions of steel. However, it has no effect on the emission-intensive iron reduction step. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Low temperature electrolysis (<110°c)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Low temperature electrolysis (<110°c)", "name": "Low temperature electrolysis (<110°c)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "Shift in energy sources and electrification" ], "description": "The electrolytic steelmaking process uses renewable electricity to transform iron oxides into pure metals. Low temperature electrolysis (<110°C) is one of the two main types of such electrolysis, generally involving extraction from an aqueous solution.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The use of renewable electricity would open a fully CO2 free production route for steel, and a reduction of about 30% of energy use compared to standard steel making. It can be designed to respond to electricity grid load balancing to integrate further variable renewables for power generation. However, it is at much earlier stages of development compared to other low emission steel-making technologies.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Plasma torches for iron ore pelletisation", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Plasma torches for iron ore pelletisation", "name": "Plasma torches for iron ore pelletisation", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "Shift in energy sources and electrification" ], "description": "Plasma torches have the potential to be used in many industrial applications to provide high temperature heat. In iron ore pelletisation furnaces these could be used to provide electrified heat.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "While pelletisation might become more important with the rise of H2 DRI based steelmaking, this is an early stage technology.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Reduction based on hydrogen plasma", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Reduction based on hydrogen plasma", "name": "Reduction based on hydrogen plasma", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "The smelting reduction based on hydrogen plasma (HPSR) is the process of using hydrogen in a plasma state to reduce iron oxides. This can be done through the generation of a hydrogen plasma arc between a hollow graphite electrode and liquid iron oxide.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The use of hydrogen derived from renewable electricity would open a fully CO2-free production route for steel. However, it is at much earlier stages of development compared to other low emission steel-making technologies.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Reduction via alkali metal looping", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Reduction via alkali metal looping", "name": "Reduction via alkali metal looping", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "In a novel process, iron ore is reduced by using a combination of alkali metals to separate out oxygen and iron. The alkali metals are recycled to release the oxygen and the reduction process starts again in a closed loop. The process requires thermal energy and occurs at temperatures of 300-900 °C, depending on the part of the loop.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This reduction method could lower the CO2 emissions of steel. However, it is at much earlier stages of development compared to other low emission steel-making technologies.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Smelting with integrated CO2 capture", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Smelting with integrated CO2 capture", "name": "Smelting with integrated CO2 capture", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "With carbon capture and usage" ], "description": "A new oxygen-rich smelting reduction technology for producing steel is being developed, consisting of a reactor in which iron ore is injected at the top and powder coal at the bottom. The powder coal reacts with the molten ore to produce liquid iron that is the base material to produce high quality steel. The use of pure oxygen makes the new smelting reduction process well suited to integrating CCUS, as it generates a high concentration of CO2 offgas and emissions are delivered in a single stack compared to a standard steel mill plant with multiple emission points. CCUS could also be applied to existing smelting reduction technologies, although the offgases of the process still contain considerable energy content along with CO2, so capture would also likely be needed on a power plant using those offgases, in order to realise near-zero emission levels.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Applying CCS to the new smelting reduction technology would result in 80% emission reductions relative to conventional blast furnace-coke oven steel production. This technology might be lower cost relative to alternatives.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Thermal decomposition of iron ore using lasers", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Thermal decomposition of iron ore using lasers", "name": "Thermal decomposition of iron ore using lasers", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "In this process, iron ore is converted into iron metal using a laser furnace without emitting carbon dioxide (rather emitting oxygen). The process leverages semiconductor laser diodes, which enable new temperature and pressure ranges to reduce high- and low-grade iron ore fines into molten iron metal.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This reduction method could lower the CO2 emissions of steel. However, it is at much earlier stages of development compared to other low emission steel-making technologies.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Upgraded biomass partially replacing injected coal (blast furnace)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Upgraded biomass partially replacing injected coal (blast furnace)", "name": "Upgraded biomass partially replacing injected coal (blast furnace)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Iron and steel", "Shift in energy sources and electrification" ], "description": "Biomass injection into blast furnaces is already applied commercially in Brazil, as it can be used as a reductant. However, not all types of biomass are suitable for direct injection, and some types require small-scale, less efficient blast furnaces due to the lower compressive strength of charcoal compared to coke. A less mature technology route is the conversion or upgrading of biomass to a coal-like material through torrefaction or pyrolysis, in which biomass is heated to temperate in the range of 200 °C to 400 °C in the absence of oxygen. The 'bio-coal' has characteristics more similar to coal than the original biomass. Such bio-coal can be used in standard blast furnaces to replace a portion of injected coal.", "supplyChain": [ "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Biomass has potential to reduce emissions from blast furnaces, but cannot fully replace the coal and coke needs of the standard blast furnace. Furthermore, limitations of sustainable biomass availability will put an upper limit on the potential for this option.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Compressed air energy storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Compressed air energy storage", "name": "Compressed air energy storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Mechanical storage" ], "description": "CAES involves compressing and storing air under pressure, either in underground geological caverns (e.g. salt caverns or digging artificial reservoirs) or in special above-ground containers. Electricity is converted into thermal and mechanical energy as hot compressed air. The compressed air is then heated and expanded in a gas turbine, which drives a generator to produce electricity. The process of compressing air from atmospheric pressure to a storage pressure (e.g. 70 bar) generates heat. In diabatic CAES plants, such as those currently existing, the heat generated is removed by coolers. However, the loss of this heat must then be compensated for during the expansion phase by heating the high-pressure air. Adiabatic CAES, in which the heat generated during the gas compression phase is stored and used to heat the compressed air during the expansion phase, is being researched, and it would drastically reduce or even eliminate the need for additional heating, e.g. by burning natural gas, and thus potentially achieving higher efficiencies.", "supplyChain": [ "Mechanical storage", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Although the technology is mature and proven, it is not widely deployed due to two main constraints: being restricted to locations where suitable salt deposits exist, and burning large amounts of natural gas to reheat the air during expansion, causing emissions and a low roundtrip efficiency. A number of alternatives exist to provide similar services as CAES plants. Pumped storage hydropower (PSH) in particular has some of the same topological constraints are CAES, but is a more deployed alternative. CAES could however be important to scale further long duration energy storage.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Flywheel", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Flywheel", "name": "Flywheel", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Mechanical storage" ], "description": "Flywheels are powered by electricity and can store electrical energy as rotating inertia. When charged, the flywheel accelerates; when discharged, the flywheel slows and the kinetic energy is converted back into electricity by a generator. Air friction is usually reduced by placing the flywheel in a vacuum, and rotating friction is minimised by using magnetically levitated bearings, resulting in high efficiencies of 90-95%. The energy output tends to be low, so flywheels are limited to short-term applications such as spinning reserve for grid frequency regulation. The fast response time, low maintenance requirements and very high cycle life (i.e. can undergo a large number of charge and discharge cycles) are also important characteristics for short-term applications to maintain power quality. In addition, flywheel storage can provide both up and down regulation during the same time period, although not simultaneously.", "supplyChain": [ "Mechanical storage", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "A higher integration of VRE and the subsequent decrease in the inertia of the system, increases the need of masses in the system, especially for balancing purposes and power quality.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Gravity-based storage (excluding pumped hydro)", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Gravity-based storage (excluding pumped hydro)", "name": "Gravity-based storage (excluding pumped hydro)", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Mechanical storage" ], "description": "Gravity-based storage uses electricity to lift an object, such as water, or a block of concrete. Energy is stored in the object as gravitational potential energy. When electricity is needed, the object is lowered to convert the potential energy into electricity through a turbine. In the case of water being used as a medium, gravity storage is distinguished by pumped hydro as in the first the water only acts as a carrier of hydraulic force, pushing up the singular, heavy mass, like a giant piston. In this case, typically water itself does not provide energy storage; it merely allows the gravitational potential energy to be transferred from the weighted block through the water and pump. On the contrary, in pumped hydro water is directly used as storage medium and to run the turbines to produce Gravity-based storage uses electricity to lift an object, such as water, or a block of concrete. Energy is stored in the object as gravitational potential energy. When electricity is needed, the object is lowered to convert the potential energy into electricity through a turbine. In the case of water being used as a medium, gravity storage is distinguished by pumped hydro as in the first the water only acts as a carrier of hydraulic force, pushing up the singular, heavy mass, like a giant piston. In this case, typically water itself does not provide energy storage; it merely allows the gravitational potential energy to be transferred from the weighted block through the water and pump. On the contrary, in pumped hydro water is directly used as storage medium and to run the turbines to produce electricity. However, in certain projects there might not be a clear boundary between the two technologies.", "supplyChain": [ "Mechanical storage", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "In contrast to PSH and CAES, it is not limited by topographic or geological conditions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Liquid air energy storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Liquid air energy storage", "name": "Liquid air energy storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Mechanical storage" ], "description": "In liquid air energy storage systems, also known as cryogenic energy storage, electricity is used to compress and cool air to cryogenic temperatures (-196°C), recharging the storage system. The liquid air is then stored in an insulated tank at low pressure. When power is required, liquid air is drawn from the tank, pumped to high pressure, reheated (by exposure to ambient air, or with waste heat from industrial processes or from the previous compression stage) and expanded. This expansion can be used to drive a piston engine or a turbine to generate electricity. Co-locating next to a source of unused cold (to reduce the power consumption in the liquefaction process) or unused heat (for the evaporation process) increases the overall efficiency of the storage system.", "supplyChain": [ "Mechanical storage", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "In contrast to pumped storage hydropower (PSH) and CAES, LAES is not limited by topographic or geological conditions. The technology is also well suited for long-term storage.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Liquid CO2 energy storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Liquid CO2 energy storage", "name": "Liquid CO2 energy storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Mechanical storage" ], "description": "CO2 is stored in gas form in a dome. When charging, electricity is used to compress the CO2 into liquid form, which is stored in a pressurised vessel. When discharging, the liquid is heated up to turn it back into a gas and, as the CO2 expands from liquid to gas, it spins a turbine to generate electricity. It is similar to compressed air energy storage, which uses air instead of just CO2. However, because CO2 can be liquefied under pressure at 31°C, unlike most other gases, it allows larger amounts of energy to be stored in a relatively small pressure vessel and does not require specific geological reservoirs.", "supplyChain": [ "Mechanical storage", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "In contrast to PSH and CAES, it is not limited by topographic or geological conditions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Pumped storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Pumped storage", "name": "Pumped storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Mechanical storage" ], "description": "Pumped hydro storage plants store energy using two water reservoirs, one at a higher altitude than the other. Water is pumped up from the lower reservoir to the higher reservoir using electricity, converting the electrical energy into gravitational potential energy. The stored energy can be converted back into electricity by letting the water fall from the higher reservoir to drive a turbine. Pumped hydro was used in Italy and Switzerland as early as the 1890s and is now a mature technology that is widely used on a commercial scale globally, although limited by the need for the right geographical conditions. A number of improvements are enhancing some of its basic characteristics, including reuse and retrofitting for increased flexibility to accommodate variable renewables, extending the reach of pumped hydro to seawater or underground, and smaller modular projects.", "supplyChain": [ "Mechanical storage", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", "C", "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Pumped storage hydropower (PSH) plants continue to be a cornerstone of power system flexibility. Where feasible, the technology needs to continue to find solutions to expand, including more flexible technologies and seawater, small-scale or underground systems.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Folding-shearing", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Folding-shearing", "name": "Folding-shearing", "sector": [ "Industry", "Metallic products", "Manufacturing" ], "description": "The process applies the mechanics of spinning to sheet metal forming. It involves first folding a sheet along its axis and then drawing it in a way that reduces its width without reducing its average thickness. If proven, the technology could have potential to cut metal scrappage from process like car body manufacturing by up to two-thirds.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The technology has good potential to considerably reduce forming losses from sheet metal, but is still at an early stage of development.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Molten oxide electrolysis", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Molten oxide electrolysis", "name": "Molten oxide electrolysis", "sector": [ "Industry", "Metallic products", "Manufacturing" ], "description": "Molten oxide electrolysis (MOE) is an electrometallurgical process used to produce liquid metal directly from oxide feedstocks. Electrons are the reducing agents, and the products of the reaction are pure metal and oxygen. It can be applied to mining waste to help recover valuable metals.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 6, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This can be a cleaner more efficient process than conventional technologies.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Novel physical separation for recycling", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Novel physical separation for recycling", "name": "Novel physical separation for recycling", "sector": [ "Industry", "Metallic products", "Recycling" ], "description": "While the separation of ferrous metals from non-ferrous metals is relatively easy thanks to the magnetic properties of the ones containing iron, recovering precious and valuable metals takes more technologically advanced and sophisticated recycling equipment. New physical separation techniques can better sort materials, such as through shredding with more selective component breaking and mechanisms to reduce entangling.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Modern recycling technologies can effectively identify many different kinds of metals, though there is still the need for even more effective recycling technologies to separate non-ferrous metals and different alloys of the same metal. This could enable increased uptake of secondary production, thus reducing emissions from primary production.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Reducing metal forming losses and lightweighting through additive manufacturing", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Reducing metal forming losses and lightweighting through additive manufacturing", "name": "Reducing metal forming losses and lightweighting through additive manufacturing", "sector": [ "Industry", "Metallic products", "Manufacturing" ], "description": "Reducing yield losses in manufacturing (e.g. sheet metal in the automotive industry) would reduce material demand and, in turn, emissions from material production. Additive manufacturing, a digitalised production process in which three-dimensional objects are produced by successively adding material by layer, can help. By its nature it leads to minimal material losses compared to processes that cut an object from larger pieces of material. It also facilitates design of lighter-weight parts.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Manufacturing yields are already quite high for many manufactured products, although improvements could be helpful in applications with high losses currently, such as vehicles. While improvements can help reduce material use and thus emissions, the impact on total emissions is relatively low given that collection rates for pre-consumer scrap are high, the quality of the scrap is high (due to good sorting) and recycled production emits a relatively small fraction of the emissions of primary production. Improvements in terms of additional potential for lightweighting, on the other hand, can reduce total demand and thus help contribute to emissions reductions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ring rolling with variable wall thickness", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Ring rolling with variable wall thickness", "name": "Ring rolling with variable wall thickness", "sector": [ "Industry", "Metallic products", "Manufacturing" ], "description": "The process uses control of roll gaps and speeds to achieve variable wall thickness of metal rings. This could reduce by about half the material losses from conventional processes, in which non-axisymmetric rings are cut from larger rings and anywhere from 50 to 90% of metal can be lost. The technology would be applicable to ring-formed components, including aerospace engines, rotating machinery (ex. steam and wind turbines), bearings and pipes. It could likely be used for most formed metals.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The technology has good potential to considerably reduce forming losses from ring-shaped forms, but is still at an early stage of development.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "X-ray transmission for recycling", "breadcrumb": "Industry > X-ray transmission for recycling", "name": "X-ray transmission for recycling", "sector": [ "Industry", "Metallic products", "Recycling" ], "description": "While the separation of ferrous metals from non-ferrous metals is relatively easy thanks to the magnetic properties of the ones containing iron, recovering precious and valuable metals takes more technologically advanced and sophisticated recycling equipment. X-ray transmission technologies sort materials according to differences in their density, enabling detection of grains of metals with much smaller sizes than before.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Modern recycling technologies can effectively identify many different kinds of metals, though there is still the need for even more effective recycling technologies to separate non-ferrous metals and different alloys of the same metal. This could enable increased uptake of secondary production, thus reducing emissions from primary production.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Advanced graphite purification & spheronization", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Advanced graphite purification & spheronization", "name": "Advanced graphite purification & spheronization", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "Mineral processing and refining", "Other refining methods" ], "description": "Battery-grade synthetic graphite is made from high-temperature treatment of a blend of lower-purity carbon-based raw materials such as petroleum coke, coal tar pitch or oil. This creates a uniform carbon structure suited for high-performance, fast-charging, long-lasting lithium-ion battery anodes. It is purer than natural graphite in terms of carbon content and tends to behave more predictably, making it a competitive alternative to natural graphite. However, the production process is highly energy-intensive (thus up to four times more carbon-intensive than natural graphite anode production) and can be significantly more costly than processing of natural graphite. The vast majority of battery-grade global synthetic graphite supply today originates from China. Some solutions being studied include “lengthwise graphitisation” that uses the resistance of the carbon material itself to convert electric energy into heat energy which graphitises the material. Another promising technology uses induction\nfurnaces to use the material’s inherent conduction properties achieving the required temperatures in shorter times than regular ovens\/furnaces. Other technologies with relatively lower technology readiness levels (TRLs) are “bio-graphite”, which uses amorphous carbon in biomass to produce battery-grade graphite, and methane pyrolysis, which uses solar-thermal energy or joule heating to achieve methane pyrolysis to produce hydrogen and synthetic graphite.", "supplyChain": [ "Mineral mining and extraction" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Bioleaching", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Bioleaching", "name": "Bioleaching", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "Mineral processing and refining", "Hydrometallurgy" ], "description": "Bioleaching, or biomining, relies on microorganisms to extract metals from low-grade ore. The technology can be used to improve the production of a mine and to reduce pollution by cleaning toxins in mining waste. Today, 15% of copper and 5% of gold is produced thanks to bioleaching. ", "supplyChain": [ "Mineral mining and extraction" ], "trl": [ null, null, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Direct lithium extraction from brine", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Direct lithium extraction from brine", "name": "Direct lithium extraction from brine", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "Mineral processing and refining", "Hydrometallurgy" ], "description": "Direct lithium extraction (DLE) from brine refers to a set of chemical and physical processes used to selectively recover lithium ions directly from natural or produced brines without relying on long-duration solar evaporation ponds. In DLE systems, lithium is captured from the brine using techniques such as adsorption, ion exchange, solvent extraction, membrane-based separation, or selective precipitation, followed by stripping and concentration to produce a lithium-rich solution suitable for further refining into battery-grade lithium chemicals.", "supplyChain": [ "Mineral mining and extraction" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The report The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions (2021, IEA) identified lithium as a mineral needed for batteries and other technologies. Supply to reach net-zero projections is insufficient. Geothermal brines offer a broad supply base supporting domestic energy security. Technology for extraction is in demonstration phases. However, further research to identify scale-up issues (including lack of local processing capabilities) is needed.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "High pressure acid leaching", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > High pressure acid leaching", "name": "High pressure acid leaching", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "Mineral processing and refining", "Hydrometallurgy" ], "description": "High-pressure acid leaching (HPAL) is a hydrometallurgical process in which mined and crushed ore is treated with concentrated acid in pressurized, high-temperature reactors (autoclaves) to dissolve target metals. The resulting metal-rich solution is then separated and concentrated, producing intermediates suitable for further refining. HPAL is primarily used for laterite ores containing nickel and cobalt, allowing extraction of metals that are otherwise difficult to recover using conventional methods - also enabling to reach battery-grade products after further refining - but requires significant energy and careful handling of acidic, high-pressure conditions.", "supplyChain": [ "Mineral mining and extraction" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "C", "B", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "HPLA is a major source of battery-grade nickel production, notably in Indonesia (world largest producer).", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "In-situ leaching (ISL)", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > In-situ leaching (ISL)", "name": "In-situ leaching (ISL)", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "Mineral processing and refining", "Hydrometallurgy" ], "description": "In-situ leaching (ISL), also known as in-situ recovery, is a mining method that extracts minerals from underground deposits by dissolving them, without digging large open pits or underground tunnels. In ISL operations, a solution is injected into the ore-bearing rock through wells, where it dissolves the target mineral. The mineral-rich liquid is then pumped back to the surface and processed to separate and concentrate the valuable material, which can later be refined. This approach is used for resources such as uranium, copper, lithium, and rare earth elements.", "supplyChain": [ "Mineral mining and extraction" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", "C", "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "ISL is a technique that is already used to extract critical minerals for the energy sector (particularly important for Uranium) and beyond, allowing the access to deposits that would otherwise be more difficult to reach, or reducing the need of ground disturbance and land footfrint compared to classical mines.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ion-adsorption clays leaching", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Ion-adsorption clays leaching", "name": "Ion-adsorption clays leaching", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "Mineral processing and refining", "Hydrometallurgy" ], "description": "Ionic adsorption clay (IAC) is also known as regolith-hosted ionic adsorption deposits (IADs), which contain rare earth elements adsorbed physically to the clay minerals surface, mainly kaolinite and halloysite. Weathering of igneous rock, primarily granite, that contains specific rare earth-bearing minerals results in the formation of IAC. The best environments for this process to occur are warm, humid and slightly acidic conditions in subtropical regions. Important source rocks typically have a relatively high background concentration of rare earths. Rare earth-bearing minerals found in these rocks include monazite, xenotime, bastnaesite, allanite, titanite and apatite. The interest in this form of deposit comes from the expectation that extracting rare earths, which are loosely bonded to the surface of rocks, may be relatively simpler, less energy-intensive and more cost-effective than obtaining them from deeper hard rock formations. Additionally, this method could also avoid the radioactive by-products associated with traditional mining processes for these minerals. China has placed the leaching technologies for ionic adsorption clay (IAC) deposits of REEs under export controls since 2023, making any new technology outside of China a breakthrough.", "supplyChain": [ "Mineral mining and extraction" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Novel REE separation", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Novel REE separation", "name": "Novel REE separation", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "Mineral processing and refining", "Hydrometallurgy" ], "description": "Separating individual REEs is a challenging task given their similar properties and oxidation states, and their occurrence as a mixture of elements within mineral deposits. Current commercial process have high energy inputs and significant waste products. Novel techniques are being investigates such as selective precipitation, selective crystallisation, selective dissolution, the application of efficient N-heterocycle-based extractants in solvent extraction processes, and dual-ligand separation systems. Efforts in conducting multistage separations or larger-scale demonstrations will be required for these technologies to begin replacing incumbent processes.", "supplyChain": [ "Mineral mining and extraction" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Plasma processing", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Plasma processing", "name": "Plasma processing", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "Mineral processing and refining", "Other refining methods" ], "description": "Plasma processing uses high temperature, ionised plasma gas to rapidly heat materials. This has multiple effects: it burns away impurities, such as organic materials; it breaks down complex alloys and melts nano-particles to allow the creation of larger clusters that can be more easily recovered. This method is particularly valuable to recover ore at very low concentration such as gallium, germanium or rare earth elements. ", "supplyChain": [ "Mineral mining and extraction" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Deep sea mining", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Deep sea mining", "name": "Deep sea mining", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "Mining and extraction" ], "description": "Deep sea mining refers to the extraction of metal nodules from the seabed. These nodules are rich in minerals such as nickel, cobalt, and manganese, which are all used in lithium-ion batteries. No exploitation contracts exist, and the practice is controversial. Several governments have called for a ban to any possible future exploitation before more scientific evidence is available on the environmental risks associated with deep sea mining, such as biodiversity loss or the release of carbon stored at the bottom of the oceans.", "supplyChain": [ "Mineral mining and extraction" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Deep sea mining could be an important source of critical minerals for lithium-ion battery production, but the environmental risks and the technical challenges related with this practice makes it unlikely to start producing at scale during this decade. From now to the 2030s, battery demand and production will have already experienced at least four-and-a-half fold growth (STEPS), which means that, if supplies manage to satisfy the growing demand, new source of supplies might be not needed. In addition, battery chemistry shifts (e.g. from NMC to LFP) might decrease the need for the metals found in the nodules, and after 2035, end-of-life batteries will start to grow rapidly, which implies that recycling will provide new sources of those minerals. If succesful, it might, however, represent a source of supply chain diversification.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Electrification of mining operations", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Electrification of mining operations", "name": "Electrification of mining operations", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "Mining and extraction" ], "description": "Technologies enabling the electrification of mining operations, including transport (in-site haul trucks), drilling and monitoring, among others.", "supplyChain": [ "Mineral mining and extraction" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 8, 8, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Electrification of new mines could decrease their local environmental impact, increase mine competitiveness thanks to the greater efficiency of electrified processes, and decreased fuel and maintenance costs. Also, electric mining equipment are beneficial for workers’ health and safety thanks to reduced air and noise pollution, especially in underground mines, and to reduce the need for underground ventilation and cooling systems.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Phytomining", "breadcrumb": "Critical minerals > Phytomining", "name": "Phytomining", "sector": [ "Critical minerals", "Mining and extraction" ], "description": "Some plants, called hyperaccumulators, have the capacity to concentrate metal ions in their tissues. Phytomining consists of harvesting those plants to extract the embedded metals. This allows for the exploitation of large, low-grade deposits where traditional mining is inefficient, with a lower environmental impact and fewer emissions. But water consumption per tonne of metal may be greater than in traditional mining. Because metal-rich soils are usually ecotoxic, phytomining would not be in competition with agriculture, nor require extensive deforestation. After years or decades of operation, soils could be returned as arable land.", "supplyChain": [ "Mineral mining and extraction" ], "trl": [ 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "There could be vast areas in the world where critical minerals could be extracted through phytomining, but the scale of this potential is still under examination. This technology could also be employed for soil remediation.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ocean (cross-cutting)", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Ocean (cross-cutting)", "name": "Ocean (cross-cutting)", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Ocean" ], "description": "Ocean technologies are a broad technology family, encompassing a range of designs to generate electricity from energy in the sea. Tidal range power harnesses energy from tides in a similar way to wind power. Wave power captures the energy from surface waves. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) draws thermal energy from the deep ocean and converts it into electricity or commodities. Salinity gradient power is energy produced from the chemical pressure that results from the difference in salt concentration between fresh water and saltwater. Ocean current technology can harvest energy from sea currents, which, for a given depth, always flow in one direction and are driven by the thermohaline convection system that moves water around the world. For all these technologies exept tidal range ones, only pilot plants have been operated in the past, but scale-ups are planned. For tidal range, two large-scale plants have been operational since the 1960s.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Overall, as a renewable energy source, ocean energy brings overall carbon reduction benefits as demonstrated by several lifecycle assessment analyses as well as economic benefits associated with development and deployment. Furthermore, ocean energy technologies have high potential to create system benefits, specifically in balancing the electricity grid and improving the quality of power supply (i.e. leading to fewer frequency changes and reducing the need of expensive control systems). Unlike the more intermittent renewable sources, the energy of the sea is constant and the tides are entirely predictable.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ocean thermal", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Ocean thermal", "name": "Ocean thermal", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Ocean" ], "description": "Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC), including Sea-Water Air Conditioning (SWAC), exploits temperature differences found at different ocean depths. Only a few pilot plants have been operated worldwide. If the principle is proven, there are numerous scale-up challenges, particularly those related to high operational costs and low efficiency. Beyond power production, SWAC is commercially competitive in commercial and data centre cooling in Europe. The technology can also be harnessed to deliver desalination.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "In certain regions with suitable ocean characteristics, OTEC could be a stable source of carbon-free energy, and could, for example, decarbonise hydrogen production. But without significant cost reductions and operational experience, it is unlikely that this technology will have a significant impact on energy mixes.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Salinity gradient (blue energy)", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Salinity gradient (blue energy)", "name": "Salinity gradient (blue energy)", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Ocean" ], "description": "Salinity gradient exploits the osmotic pressure between seawater and fresh water. While there is significant potential for deployment, salinity gradient technology requires further development before this will be possible. The most extensive approaches for harvesting salinity gradient energy (so-called \"blue energy\") are pressure-retarded osmosis (PRO)and reverse electrodialysis (RED). PRO uses osmotic pressure from mixing freshwater and seawater through a semi-permeable membrane to drive a turbine and produce electricity, wearhas RED harnesses converts the chemical potential difference between saltwater and freshwater directly into electrical power using alternating ion-exchange membranes.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Can be a predictable source of carbon energy that can be combined with seawater desalination processes. However, excessively high operating costs still seem to be preventing the completion of a large-scale demonstration. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Tidal range", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Tidal range", "name": "Tidal range", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Ocean" ], "description": "Tidal range adopts conventional hydropower principles to harvest energy from the difference in sea level between high and low tides. Tidal range development is focused in the UK, the Netherlands, France and Korea.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Two large-scale plants have been operational for decades, and others could be built, but widespread deployment seems limited by geographical constraints and\/or capital costs.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Tidal stream (ocean current energy)", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Tidal stream (ocean current energy)", "name": "Tidal stream (ocean current energy)", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Ocean" ], "description": "Tidal stream turbines harness the flow of ocean currents in the same way that wind turbines harness the flow of wind. Tidal stream turbines can be mounted directly on the seabed, or floating and moored to the seabed. Technologies are approaching commercialisation, with the testing of full-scale devices in real-sea conditions, led by European companies. The design of tidal stream turbines is approaching design convergence. Converging designs generally comprise two- to three-bladed horizontal-axis turbines. Alternative designs include: vertical axis turbines, which work under the same principles as horizontal axis turbines, except the rotor turns on a vertical axis; oscillating hydrofoils, that have a hydrofoil attached to an oscillating arm, which is lifted by the tidal stream to generate power; enclosed tips, or Venturi Effect devices increase the velocity of the tidal stream by funnelling it through a duct; tidal kites, which are tethered to the seabed with a turbine attached below its ‘wing’, and ‘flies’ in a figure-of-eight path to exaggerate the speed of the waterflow through the turbine; and Archimedes screws, a helical corkscrew device which draws power from the tidal stream as the water flows up the spiral, turning the turbine.\n", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Devices and their auxiliary technology are expected to reach commercialisation following around ten years (estimated) of further research, development and real-sea experience. The rated power of existing tidal technology ranges between smaller-scale devices of 0.1 MW, and larger scale at a MW scale. The progress of tidal stream in recent years is demonstrated by the operating hours accumulated, capacity deployed and electricity generated, with companies operating at all scales active in Europe and globally. In IEA-OES member countries, the installed capacity reach almost 12MW, and an impressive aditional 170MW capacity is under construction or awarded. It is a predictable and carbon-free source of energy.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Wave energy converters (wave energy)", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Wave energy converters (wave energy)", "name": "Wave energy converters (wave energy)", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Ocean" ], "description": "Wave Energy Converters (WECs) harness the energy contained in the movement of the waves. WEC placement is flexible; WECs can be deployed on or near the shoreline, or at a distance of over 100 metres from the shore. Wave technology remains at an earlier stage of development than tidal stream technology, with novel device prototypes undergoing testing in real sea conditions. A range of innovative wave device design concepts are in testing globally; wave energy is comparatively further from technological convergence. Successful design convergence may not resemble that of tidal technology; instead, a wider variety of different designs may be successful, given the broad spectrum of feasible ways to harness energy from the waves. Wave prototypes are currently found in four main forms. The point absorber is a floating structure that absorbs energy through the movement of the waves at the water’s surface. The attenuator sits across the wave front, capturing energy by selectively constraining the movement caused by the passing wave. The hinged flap is mounted on the seabed in shallower water, and harnesses energy through an oscillating flap. Finally, the Oscillating Water Column (OWC) is a partially-submerged, hollow structure open to the sea water below the surface, trapping air above the water. The rising and falling waves compress and decompress this air, which is channelled through an air turbine. WEC technology developers are seeking to improve the power rating of their devices through design optimisation. This will allow for proving of the technology at higher TRLs, and proceeding to commercialisation.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "In general, WEC technologies have not been manufactured and installed on a scale beyond the experimental pilot plant, and cost reductions will be necessary to see significant deployment. It could be a predictable source of carbon-free energy, but its profitability will be highly dependent on the ocean characteristics of the region, which could drastically reduce the areas with potential for deployment.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Advanced acid gas removal", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Advanced acid gas removal", "name": "Advanced acid gas removal", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Oil and gas", "Carbon management", "Refining" ], "description": "Advanced acid gas removal clean technologies focus on lower‑energy solvent systems, such as hybrid and high‑capacity amines, that cut steam use and therefore CO2 emissions from regeneration. They also minimize hydrocarbon and solvent losses and pair with high‑efficiency sulfur recovery or wet‑gas sulfuric acid processes that turn waste gases into saleable sulfur or sulfuric acid while recovering heat.Reaching ever higher levels of CO2 concentration for example are part of the oncremental improvements especially as oil and gas companies may be produing from higher CO2 fields to meet demand.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Cutting CO2 emissions from oil ans gas processing, and methane emissions from the energy sector by 75% by 2030 is one of the least cost opportunities to limit global warming in the near term. This is one of the technologies available to reduce oil and gas methane emissions. Regenerable acid gas removal chemicals industry plays a critical role in industrial gas purification and emissions control, enabling removal and repeated regeneration of contaminants such as carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), sulfur oxides (SOx), and other acidic gases from fossil fuel streams and industrial emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Flare gas recovery", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Flare gas recovery", "name": "Flare gas recovery", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Oil and gas", "Methane emissions monitoring and abatement" ], "description": "When the amount of produced gas can not be managed in the field or is otherwise limited and there are no feasible alternatives for using its energy content, flares are used to combust natural gas to reduce its release to the atmosphere. Flares may be not burn efficiently and some methane may not be completely combusted. Also note that any naturally occurring CO2 will also be emitted as a waste product..", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Cutting methane emissions from the energy sector by 75% by 2030 is one of the lowest cost opportunities to limit global warming in the near term. This is one of the technologies available to reduce coal mine methane emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Improved oil and gas combustion (methane slips)", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Improved oil and gas combustion (methane slips)", "name": "Improved oil and gas combustion (methane slips)", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Oil and gas", "Methane emissions monitoring and abatement" ], "description": "Methane slip refers to the release of unburned methane due to incomplete combustion. It can be reduced at flares, engines, turbines, heaters, and boilers by improving operations, such as reducing start-ups, optimizing flow and pressure, and automating air-to-fuel ratio controls", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Cutting methane emissions from the energy sector by 75% by 2030 is one of the least cost opportunities to limit global warming in the near term. This is one of the technologies available to reduce oil and gas methane emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Instrumented air systems", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Instrumented air systems", "name": "Instrumented air systems", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Oil and gas", "Methane emissions monitoring and abatement" ], "description": "Pumps and controllers that vent natural gas by design can be replaced by instrument air systems, which pressurise ambient air to perform the same functions without emitting methane.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", "C", "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Cutting methane emissions from the energy sector by 75% by 2030 is one of the least cost opportunities to limit global warming in the near term. This is one of the technologies available to reduce oil and gas methane emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Mini-CNG facilities", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Mini-CNG facilities", "name": "Mini-CNG facilities", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Oil and gas", "Methane emissions monitoring and abatement" ], "description": "Portable Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) facilities can be used to treat gas on site and allow its transport. The CNG process compresses gas at the wellhead so that it can be trucked short distances for infield fuel use or to nearby gas processing facilities. It may also be used on gas transport vessels. ", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Cutting methane emissions from the energy sector by 75% by 2030 is one of the least cost opportunities to limit global warming in the near term. This is one of the technologies available to reduce oil and gas methane emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Mini-GTL conversion plants", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Mini-GTL conversion plants", "name": "Mini-GTL conversion plants", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Oil and gas", "Methane emissions monitoring and abatement" ], "description": "Small-scale gas-to-methanol or gas-to-liquids conversion plants. Several options are being explored, including multifunctional catalysts to develop products from associated gas streams, with a focus on modular conversion equipment.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Cutting methane emissions from the energy sector by 75% by 2030 is one of the least cost opportunities to limit global warming in the near term. This is one of the technologies available to reduce oil and gas methane emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Mini-LNG facilities", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Mini-LNG facilities", "name": "Mini-LNG facilities", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Oil and gas", "Methane emissions monitoring and abatement" ], "description": "Mini- or micro-LNG facilities are small Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) plants that can be deployed to liquify natural gas on oil and gas production facilities. LNG transport is feasible using trucks (onshore) or barges (offshore) rather than large marine carriers.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Cutting methane emissions from the energy sector by 75% by 2030 is one of the least cost opportunities to limit global warming in the near term. This is one of the technologies available to reduce oil and gas methane emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "On-site gas turbines (oil and gas)", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > On-site gas turbines (oil and gas)", "name": "On-site gas turbines (oil and gas)", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Oil and gas", "Methane emissions monitoring and abatement" ], "description": "Gas turbines can use methane to generate electricity to power on-site operations or be sold to the grid.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Cutting methane emissions from the energy sector by 75% by 2030 is one of the least cost opportunities to limit global warming in the near term. This is one of the technologies available to reduce oil and gas methane emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Operational and continuous monitoring in oil and gas facilities", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Operational and continuous monitoring in oil and gas facilities", "name": "Operational and continuous monitoring in oil and gas facilities", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Oil and gas", "Methane emissions monitoring and abatement" ], "description": "Continuous monitoring of methane emissions in an oil and gas facility through towers equipped with instruments or similar systems to detect leaks, enable repairs and support emissions reporting.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 8, 8, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Cutting methane emissions from the energy sector by 75% by 2030 is one of the least cost opportunities to limit global warming in the near term. This is one of the technologies available to reduce oil and gas methane emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Oxy-fuelling carbon capture (cracking)", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Oxy-fuelling carbon capture (cracking)", "name": "Oxy-fuelling carbon capture (cracking)", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Oil and gas", "Carbon management", "Refining" ], "description": "The fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit is responsible for 20-55% of total CO2 emissions from a typical refinery. CO2 concentration in the flue gas is around 8-20% (volumetric). Oxy-combustion enables the concentration and capture of CO2 in the flue gas from FCC units.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Post-combustion capture at an FCC has lower CO2 avoidance costs than oxy-fuelling combustion, but oxy-fuelling combustion has the advantage of increasing the throughput of the FCC", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Periodic methane emission monitoring in oil and gas facilities", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Periodic methane emission monitoring in oil and gas facilities", "name": "Periodic methane emission monitoring in oil and gas facilities", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Oil and gas", "Methane emissions monitoring and abatement" ], "description": "Monitoring of methane emissions in an oil and gas facility through mobile devices such as optical imaging cameras or laser sensors to detect leaks, enable repairs and support emissions reporting. Includes airborne approaches but not satellite", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Cutting methane emissions from the energy sector by 75% by 2030 is one of the least cost opportunities to limit global warming in the near term. This is one of the technologies available to reduce oil and gas methane emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Plasma-catalytic processes for methane abatement", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Plasma-catalytic processes for methane abatement", "name": "Plasma-catalytic processes for methane abatement", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Oil and gas", "Methane emissions monitoring and abatement" ], "description": "Plasma catalysis is gaining increasing interest for various gas conversion applications, such as CO2 conversion into value-added chemicals and fuels, CH4 activation into hydrogen, higher hydrocarbons or oxygenates, and NH3 synthesis. Other applications are already more established, such as for air pollution control, e.g. volatile organic compound remediation, particulate matter and NOx removal. it can also be used to address Methane slip, the unburned methane released from dual-fuel marine engine s for LNG-fueled vessels.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Post-combustion carbon capture (cracking)", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Post-combustion carbon capture (cracking)", "name": "Post-combustion carbon capture (cracking)", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Oil and gas", "Carbon management", "Refining" ], "description": "The fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit is responsible for 20-55% of total CO2 emissions from a typical refinery. Post-combustion technology to capture the CO2 from the flue gas, with a volumetric CO2 concentration of 10-20% is available, but has not yet been demonstrated in a refinery context.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Post-combustion capture at a fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit has lower CO2 avoidance costs than oxy-fuelling combustion, but oxy-fuelling combustion has the advantage of increasing the throughput of the FCC.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Post-combustion carbon capture (process heater)", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Post-combustion carbon capture (process heater)", "name": "Post-combustion carbon capture (process heater)", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Oil and gas", "Carbon management", "Refining" ], "description": "Process heaters, boilers and utilities account for around 30-60% of the total CO2 emissions of a refinery. Processes needed to capture CO2 from the flue gas of these processes is similar to those in power generation. Hydrogen production (requiring substantial heat) is responsible for around 5-20% of the total CO2 emissions of a refinery, and CO2 capture from natural-gas based hydrogen production has been demonstrated on a commercial scale, but not yet been applied to a refinery.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production", "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Retrofitting with post-combustion capture is an opportunity to address CO2 emissions in existing refineries, but also depends on available space and access to CO2 storage or potential CO2 users; the RECAP project estimated the avoidance costs of CO2 from different refinery configurations and capture cases to be in the range of USD 160-210\/tCO2.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Post-combustion: chemical absorption (natural gas with CCUS)", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Post-combustion: chemical absorption (natural gas with CCUS)", "name": "Post-combustion: chemical absorption (natural gas with CCUS)", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Oil and gas", "Carbon management" ], "description": "At a natural gas power plant with post-combustion carbon capture, CO2 is removed from the flue gas using a chemical solvent such as an amine. The CO2 reacts with the solvent to form a weakly bound compound, which is then heated to release concentrated CO2 and regenerate the solvent for reuse.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Technology can be retrofitted to existing plants.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Satellite-based methane emission monitoring in oil and gas facilities", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Satellite-based methane emission monitoring in oil and gas facilities", "name": "Satellite-based methane emission monitoring in oil and gas facilities", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Oil and gas", "Methane emissions monitoring and abatement" ], "description": "Monitoring of methane emissions in an oil and gas facility through satellite-based systems to detect leaks, enable repairs and support emissions reporting.", "supplyChain": [ "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 7, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Cutting methane emissions from the energy sector by 75% by 2030 is one of the least cost opportunities to limit global warming in the near term. This is one of the technologies available to reduce oil and gas methane emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Supercritical CO2 cycle (natural gas with CCUS)", "breadcrumb": "Fossil fuels > Supercritical CO2 cycle (natural gas with CCUS)", "name": "Supercritical CO2 cycle (natural gas with CCUS)", "sector": [ "Fossil fuels", "Oil and gas", "Carbon management" ], "description": "In conventional power plants, flue gas or steam is used to drive turbines. In supercritical CO2 (sCO2) cycles, turbines are instead driven by CO2 at very high temperature and pressure, where it behaves as both a liquid and a gas. These cycles can offer higher efficiency, lower emissions, lower costs, high CO2 capture rates, and in some cases reduced water use. To enable this, sCO2 systems usually burn fuel with nearly pure oxygen, producing a flue gas made mainly of CO2 and water vapor.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "There is currently limited information on several operational challenges, including on combustion and flame dynamics. These systems are especially relevant with the growth of data centre demand and the potential for Ng and coal plants to be built or retorfitted for bespoke data centre usage with these types of capture systems. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Absorption heat pump", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Absorption heat pump", "name": "Absorption heat pump", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Thermally-driven heat pump" ], "description": "Absorption heat pumps produce heating or cooling using thermal energy rather than mechanical compression. Instead of a compressor, they use a liquid absorbent to separate and recombine a refrigerant in a closed thermodynamic cycle. Common working pairs include water–lithium bromide or ammonia–water. Heat supplied to the system, for example from natural gas, biogas, solar thermal collectors or industrial waste heat, drives the separation of the refrigerant from the absorbent. When the refrigerant evaporates it absorbs heat, and when it condenses it releases heat that can be used for space heating or cooling. Absorption heat pumps typically achieve lower efficiencies than electric heat pumps but higher efficiencies than conventional boilers when producing heat, which allows useful heat recovery from low-grade thermal sources.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Allows heating and cooling in buildings to be driven by thermal energy sources such as waste heat or renewable heat instead of electricity.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Active control systems", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Active control systems", "name": "Active control systems", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Building energy management systems" ], "description": "Active control systems manage building energy equipment dynamically in response to signals from the electricity grid or from building management systems. These systems monitor variables such as electricity demand, grid congestion, electricity prices or renewable energy availability and adjust the operation of building systems accordingly. For example, heating, cooling, ventilation or electric vehicle charging can be temporarily shifted or reduced when the electricity grid is under stress. Control actions can be performed directly by building occupants or automatically through demand response programmes where the system operator sends control signals to participating buildings.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity transmission and distribution", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ null, null, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Enables buildings to provide demand response and flexibility to electricity systems by adjusting energy consumption according to grid conditions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Adsorption heat pump", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Adsorption heat pump", "name": "Adsorption heat pump", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Thermally-driven heat pump" ], "description": "Adsorption heat pumps produce heating or cooling using thermal energy instead of mechanical compression. They rely on the ability of certain solid materials, called adsorbents, to attract and release refrigerant molecules on their surface. When heat is supplied to the adsorbent, the refrigerant is released and evaporates, absorbing heat from the surroundings. When the material cools, it adsorbs the refrigerant again and the cycle repeats. Because the process is driven by heat rather than electricity, adsorption heat pumps can operate using waste heat, solar thermal energy or combustion heat. Their efficiency is generally lower than electric heat pumps but higher than conventional boilers when producing heat, allowing useful heat recovery from low-temperature thermal sources.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Enables the use of waste heat and renewable thermal energy sources to provide heating or cooling in building energy systems.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Air-to-air heat pumps", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Air-to-air heat pumps", "name": "Air-to-air heat pumps", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Air-source heat pumps" ], "description": "Air-to-air heat pumps transfer heat between indoor air and outdoor air using a vapour compression refrigeration cycle. In heating mode, the system extracts heat from outdoor air and releases it indoors through an indoor air unit. In cooling mode, the cycle is reversed and heat from the indoor air is rejected outdoors, providing air conditioning. Even when outdoor temperatures are relatively low, the system can still extract usable heat from the air. Compared with electric resistance heaters, air-to-air heat pumps can typically deliver two to four units of heat for each unit of electricity consumed. However, their efficiency declines as outdoor temperatures drop, and performance decreases significantly when temperatures fall below about 5 °C, which is why backup heating systems are sometimes used in colder climates.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Supports the electrification of heating and cooling in buildings while significantly improving energy efficiency compared with conventional electric heating.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Air-to-water heat pump", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Air-to-water heat pump", "name": "Air-to-water heat pump", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Air-source heat pumps" ], "description": "Air-to-water heat pumps extract heat from outdoor air and transfer it to a water-based heating system inside a building. The system operates through a vapour compression refrigeration cycle in which a refrigerant absorbs heat from outside air and releases it to water circulating in the building’s heating system. The heated water can then supply radiators, underfloor heating systems or domestic hot water tanks. In some configurations the cycle can also be reversed to provide cooling. Like other heat pumps, these systems can deliver two to four units of heat for each unit of electricity consumed, depending on outdoor temperature and system design.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Supports the electrification of building heating systems by replacing fossil fuel boilers with high-efficiency heat pump technologies.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Barocaloric cooling", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Barocaloric cooling", "name": "Barocaloric cooling", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Solid-state equipment cooling" ], "description": "Barocaloric cooling is a solid-state cooling technology based on the barocaloric effect, where certain materials change temperature when pressure is applied or released. When mechanical pressure is applied to the material under adiabatic conditions, its internal structure becomes more ordered and its temperature increases. When the pressure is released, the material cools down below its initial temperature. By repeating this cycle and transferring heat through heat exchangers, the system can move heat from a cooled space to the surroundings. Barocaloric materials can achieve temperature lifts of around 40–50°C, which is significantly higher than many other solid-state cooling materials and comparable to the temperature differences required for refrigeration and air-conditioning.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Barocaloric cooling could provide a refrigerant-free alternative to vapour-compression systems while achieving large temperature lifts comparable to conventional refrigeration. If developed at scale, it could reduce environmental impacts from cooling technologies and dependence on high-GWP refrigerants.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Booster heat pump", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Booster heat pump", "name": "Booster heat pump", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Ground-source and water-source heat pumps" ], "description": "Booster heat pumps are small heat pumps installed in buildings connected to district heating networks to increase the temperature of the supplied heat locally. Instead of distributing very hot water from a central plant, district heating networks can operate at lower temperatures to reduce heat losses and improve system efficiency. The booster heat pump uses the district heating water as a heat source and raises its temperature to meet building needs such as domestic hot water production or higher-temperature heating systems. By upgrading the temperature locally, booster heat pumps allow district heating systems to operate more efficiently while still meeting the thermal requirements of individual buildings.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Supports the transition to lower-temperature district heating networks, improving system efficiency and enabling greater integration of renewable and waste heat sources.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Building energy management software", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Building energy management software", "name": "Building energy management software", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Building energy management systems" ], "description": "Building energy management software (BEMS) is used to monitor, analyse and optimise the energy consumption of buildings. The software collects data from sensors, meters and building equipment such as boilers, chillers, heat pumps, lighting and ventilation systems. It then processes this information to identify inefficiencies, adjust system operation and improve overall performance. BEMS platforms can range from simple applications that optimise the operation of a single heating system to advanced enterprise platforms capable of managing energy use across multiple buildings within a portfolio. By continuously analysing operational data, these systems allow building operators to detect abnormal consumption patterns, improve system scheduling and better coordinate heating, cooling and lighting systems.", "supplyChain": [ "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Improves energy efficiency in buildings by enabling continuous monitoring and optimisation of building energy systems.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Building integrated photovoltaic systems", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Building integrated photovoltaic systems", "name": "Building integrated photovoltaic systems", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Building energy management systems" ], "description": "Building integrated photovoltaic systems (BIPV) generate electricity using photovoltaic cells that are incorporated directly into the building envelope. Instead of installing solar panels as separate rooftop equipment, photovoltaic elements are integrated into building components such as roofs, façades, windows or shading devices. The technology uses either crystalline silicon cells or thin-film photovoltaic materials deposited on surfaces such as glass or metal substrates. By integrating electricity generation into the building structure, BIPV systems allow the building envelope itself to produce electricity while maintaining architectural functions such as weather protection or shading.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Provides on-site renewable electricity generation in buildings and reduces reliance on external electricity supply when integrated with building design.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Conventional LED", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Conventional LED", "name": "Conventional LED", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Lighting technologies and control systems" ], "description": "Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are solid-state lighting devices that produce light when an electric current passes through a semiconductor material. Unlike incandescent lamps that generate light by heating a filament, LEDs produce light through electroluminescence, which converts electricity into light much more efficiently. LED lamps emit directional light and can generate white light either by using phosphor coatings or by combining red, green and blue diodes. Compared with traditional lighting technologies, LEDs offer much longer operating lifetimes, typically tens of thousands of hours, while using significantly less electricity to produce the same amount of light.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", "C", "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "LED lighting significantly reduces electricity demand for lighting in buildings and lowers maintenance needs due to its long operating lifetime.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Direct current buildings system", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Direct current buildings system", "name": "Direct current buildings system", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Building energy management systems" ], "description": "Direct current (DC) building systems distribute electricity in direct current rather than the conventional alternating current used in most building electrical networks. Many technologies commonly found in modern buildings naturally operate in DC, including photovoltaic panels, batteries, LED lighting, electronic devices and electric vehicle charging equipment. In conventional buildings, electricity produced by solar panels must be converted from DC to AC for distribution and then often converted back to DC inside appliances. Each conversion introduces energy losses, typically around 4–8% per conversion stage. DC building systems use local DC microgrids to connect generation, storage and end uses directly, reducing the number of conversions required. This approach is particularly relevant in buildings with on-site solar generation and battery storage, where electricity is often produced and consumed locally.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity transmission and distribution", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Reducing AC–DC conversion losses can improve electrical efficiency in highly electrified buildings and facilitate the integration of distributed renewable electricity.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Direct current lighting", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Direct current lighting", "name": "Direct current lighting", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Lighting technologies and control systems" ], "description": "Direct current lighting refers to lighting systems, typically based on LEDs, that operate directly on direct current (DC) instead of the alternating current used in conventional electrical grids. LEDs inherently operate on DC, which means that in traditional systems electricity must first be converted from AC to DC inside the lighting device. In DC lighting systems this conversion step can be avoided by supplying electricity directly as DC, for example from photovoltaic systems, batteries or DC microgrids within buildings. Avoiding repeated AC to DC conversions reduces electrical losses and can simplify the integration of lighting with other DC-powered equipment.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Direct current lighting can improve energy efficiency in buildings by reducing conversion losses and facilitating the integration of lighting with on-site renewable electricity systems.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Elastocaloric cooling", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Elastocaloric cooling", "name": "Elastocaloric cooling", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Solid-state equipment cooling" ], "description": "Elastocaloric cooling is a solid-state cooling technology that exploits the elastocaloric effect, where certain materials change temperature when mechanical stress is applied or released. The effect is typically observed in shape-memory alloys that absorb or release heat when they are stretched or compressed. By repeatedly applying and releasing mechanical stress, the material can transfer heat from a cooled space to the surroundings, creating a refrigeration cycle similar in function to conventional cooling systems. Elastocaloric materials can achieve high energy densities exceeding 100 J\/cm³, and projected system performance for HVAC applications suggests a coefficient of performance (COP) of around 6, comparable to some conventional cooling technologies.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Elastocaloric cooling could offer a solid-state alternative to conventional refrigeration systems without using refrigerant gases. Its high energy density and projected COP values make it a promising candidate for future efficient cooling technologies.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Electrocaloric cooling", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Electrocaloric cooling", "name": "Electrocaloric cooling", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Solid-state equipment cooling" ], "description": "Electrocaloric cooling is a solid-state cooling technology based on the electrocaloric effect, where certain dielectric materials change temperature when an electric field is applied or removed. When an electric field is applied under adiabatic conditions, the dipoles within the material become more ordered and the material heats up. When the field is removed, the material cools below its initial temperature. By repeatedly applying and removing the electric field and transferring heat through heat exchangers, the system can pump heat from a cooled space to the surroundings. Compared with magnetocaloric systems, electrocaloric devices rely on electric fields rather than magnetic fields, which can simplify system design. However, current materials and device architectures are not yet suitable for large-scale heating or cooling applications.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Electrocaloric cooling offers a potential solid-state alternative to conventional refrigeration technologies without using refrigerants. If material performance improves, it could contribute to future low-impact cooling technologies.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Evaporative cooler", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Evaporative cooler", "name": "Evaporative cooler", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Evaporative cooling" ], "description": "Evaporative coolers (also sometimes known as swamp coolers) reduce air temperature by using the natural cooling effect of water evaporation. In these systems, warm air passes over a wet surface or through a water-saturated medium. As the water evaporates, it absorbs heat from the air, lowering its temperature before it is supplied to the building. Evaporative cooling can be implemented in direct systems, where the cooled air enters the indoor space, or indirect systems, where heat is exchanged without adding moisture to the indoor air. Because the process relies mainly on water evaporation rather than mechanical refrigeration, evaporative coolers use significantly less electricity than conventional vapour-compression air conditioners and do not require refrigerants.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Provides a low-energy cooling solution for buildings, particularly effective in dry climates where evaporative cooling can significantly reduce cooling electricity demand.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Evaporative cooling coupled with permeable membrane", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Evaporative cooling coupled with permeable membrane", "name": "Evaporative cooling coupled with permeable membrane", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Evaporative cooling" ], "description": "Evaporative cooling coupled with a permeable membrane is an alternative cooling technology that combines evaporative cooling with a membrane that separates moisture from the air stream. In this system, air passes along a membrane that allows water vapour to diffuse while preventing liquid water from entering the air stream. Evaporation on one side of the membrane removes heat and cools the air, while the membrane prevents excess humidity from entering the conditioned space. This configuration allows independent control of temperature and humidity, which is one of the main limitations of conventional evaporative cooling systems. The technology also avoids the use of refrigerants and relies mainly on water evaporation and airflow to produce cooling.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Provides a low-energy cooling technology that can reduce electricity demand for air conditioning while avoiding conventional refrigerants.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Exhaust air heat pump", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Exhaust air heat pump", "name": "Exhaust air heat pump", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Air-source heat pumps" ], "description": "Exhaust air heat pumps recover heat from the air that is expelled from a building’s ventilation system. Instead of releasing this warm air directly outdoors, the system passes it through a heat exchanger where a refrigerant captures the remaining heat. In heating mode, the recovered heat is upgraded by the heat pump and used for space heating or domestic hot water. In cooling mode, heat rejected by air conditioning systems can also be captured from the exhaust air stream and reused to provide other energy services such as water heating. By recovering energy that would otherwise be lost with ventilation air, these systems can capture around 35 to 95 percent of the available waste heat, depending on the system configuration and operating conditions.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Improves building energy efficiency by recovering heat from ventilation exhaust air and reusing it for heating or hot water production.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Fibre-optic daylighting", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Fibre-optic daylighting", "name": "Fibre-optic daylighting", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Lighting technologies and control systems" ], "description": "Fibre-optic daylighting systems capture sunlight outside a building and transport it indoors through bundles of optical fibres. A rooftop collector concentrates or redirects incoming sunlight into the fibres, which guide the light through reflective internal surfaces with minimal losses. The light is then distributed indoors through special luminaires that diffuse the daylight into interior spaces. Because optical fibres can transmit light over long distances without significant heat transfer, the system allows daylight to reach areas that normally receive little or no natural light, such as deep floor plates, basements or interior corridors.", "supplyChain": [ "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Reduces electricity demand for lighting by delivering natural daylight to interior building spaces that would otherwise rely entirely on artificial lighting.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Fuel cell micro-CHP for buildings", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Fuel cell micro-CHP for buildings", "name": "Fuel cell micro-CHP for buildings", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Polygeneration systems" ], "description": "Fuel cell micro-combined heat and power (micro-CHP) systems generate electricity and heat simultaneously for use within a building. They produce electricity through an electrochemical reaction in which hydrogen reacts with oxygen, generating electricity, heat and water without combustion. The heat produced during the process is recovered and used for space heating or domestic hot water. Two main fuel cell technologies are used in buildings: polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, which typically operate at temperatures up to about 80 °C, and solid oxide fuel cells, which operate at much higher temperatures of 600–850 °C. These systems can achieve electrical efficiencies of around 48–66%, with even higher total efficiencies when the recovered heat is used.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Micro-CHP fuel cells can improve energy efficiency in buildings by producing heat and electricity simultaneously while reducing local pollutant emissions compared with conventional combustion technologies.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Gamification devices for buildings energy demand management", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Gamification devices for buildings energy demand management", "name": "Gamification devices for buildings energy demand management", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Building energy management systems" ], "description": "Gamification devices apply game design principles to encourage building occupants to reduce or shift their energy consumption. These systems use digital interfaces, mobile applications or interactive displays that provide users with feedback on their energy use, often combined with points, rankings, challenges or rewards. By making energy consumption visible and engaging, the system encourages behavioural changes such as lowering heating settings, reducing lighting use or shifting electricity use to off-peak hours. Gamification tools are often integrated with smart meters or building energy management systems to provide real-time feedback on energy consumption.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity transmission and distribution", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Encourages behavioural changes in building occupants that can reduce energy consumption and support demand response strategies.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Heat exchanger", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Heat exchanger", "name": "Heat exchanger", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Other building heating and cooling technologies" ], "description": "Heat exchangers are devices that transfer heat between two fluids without allowing them to mix. In building energy systems they are widely used in applications such as district heating substations, ventilation heat recovery systems and domestic hot water (DHW) production. The most common design in buildings is the plate heat exchanger, where thin metal plates create alternating channels for hot and cold fluids, allowing heat to pass efficiently through the metal surface. Modern plate designs can significantly improve heat transfer while reducing pressure losses in the system, with some advanced designs achieving around 10% higher heat transfer performance and up to 35% lower pressure drop compared with conventional units.", "supplyChain": [ "Heat end use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Heat exchangers are key components in efficient heating, cooling and heat recovery systems, enabling buildings to recover and reuse thermal energy instead of wasting it.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Heat pump water heaters", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Heat pump water heaters", "name": "Heat pump water heaters", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Air-source heat pumps" ], "description": "Heat pump water heaters produce domestic hot water by extracting heat from the surrounding air and transferring it to a water storage tank through a refrigeration cycle. Instead of generating heat directly from electricity like a conventional electric resistance water heater, the system moves heat from one place to another, which allows it to deliver several units of heat for each unit of electricity consumed. In typical operation, heat pump water heaters can achieve coefficients of performance of 2 to 4, meaning they produce two to four times more heat energy than the electricity they use. These systems are often installed as integrated units that combine the heat pump and the storage tank in a single appliance.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Supports the electrification of water heating in buildings while significantly reducing electricity consumption compared with conventional electric resistance heaters.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Heat recovery chiller", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Heat recovery chiller", "name": "Heat recovery chiller", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Other building heating and cooling technologies" ], "description": "Heat recovery chillers are cooling systems that capture and reuse the heat generated during the refrigeration process. Like conventional chillers, they produce chilled water for air conditioning through a vapour compression cycle. However, instead of rejecting the waste heat from the condenser to the outdoor environment, the system recovers this heat and redirects it for useful purposes such as domestic hot water production or space heating. This allows a single system to simultaneously provide cooling and heating services within a building. By using heat that would normally be wasted, heat recovery chillers can significantly increase the overall efficiency of building energy systems.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Improves energy efficiency in buildings by recovering waste heat from cooling systems and using it for heating or hot water production.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "High vacuum flat plate collectors heat pump", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > High vacuum flat plate collectors heat pump", "name": "High vacuum flat plate collectors heat pump", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Thermally-driven heat pump" ], "description": "High vacuum flat plate collectors are solar thermal collectors designed to capture solar radiation and convert it into heat for building heating systems. The collector consists of a flat absorber plate enclosed within a highly evacuated chamber that minimizes heat losses by eliminating air convection around the absorber. Solar radiation heats the plate, and the heat is transferred to a circulating fluid that can be used directly for heating or combined with a heat pump to increase the temperature further. Thanks to the vacuum insulation, these collectors can operate at significantly higher temperatures than conventional flat plate solar collectors, reaching around 350 °C, and up to about 450 °C when combined with concentrating mirrors. Unlike many concentrating solar systems, they are also able to capture diffuse solar radiation, allowing them to operate even under cloudy conditions.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Supports the use of solar thermal energy in buildings by providing a renewable heat source that can be integrated with heating systems or heat pumps.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "High-temperature heat pump", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > High-temperature heat pump", "name": "High-temperature heat pump", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Air-source heat pumps" ], "description": "High-temperature heat pumps are designed to deliver heat at significantly higher temperatures than conventional heat pumps used in residential heating systems. While standard heat pumps typically supply heat at temperatures below about 60 °C, high-temperature heat pumps can produce heat in the range of 90 °C to 160 °C. This is achieved through specialised compressors, refrigerants and system designs capable of operating at higher pressures and temperatures. These systems allow heat pumps to be used in buildings or applications that require higher-temperature heat, such as certain commercial heating systems or existing heating networks designed for high-temperature boilers.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Extends the range of applications where heat pumps can replace fossil-fuel heating systems by providing higher-temperature heat for buildings and heating networks", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hybrid heat pump", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Hybrid heat pump", "name": "Hybrid heat pump", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Other heat pumps technologies" ], "description": "Hybrid heat pumps combine an electric heat pump with a secondary heating system such as a gas condensing boiler. The heat pump operates during normal conditions to provide efficient heating, while the backup system activates during periods of very low outdoor temperatures or high heating demand. By switching between technologies depending on operating conditions, the system maintains reliable heating while limiting the size and peak electricity demand of the heat pump. Hybrid systems can therefore use the high efficiency of heat pumps during most of the year while relying on the secondary system during extreme weather conditions.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Acts as a transitional solution for building heating by reducing fossil fuel consumption while limiting peak electricity demand during cold periods.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen boiler", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Hydrogen boiler", "name": "Hydrogen boiler", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Other building heating and cooling technologies" ], "description": "Hydrogen boilers are heating systems that operate in a similar way to conventional gas boilers but use hydrogen as the fuel instead of natural gas. Hydrogen is burned in a combustion chamber to produce heat, which is then transferred to water circulating in the building’s heating system for space heating or domestic hot water. Because hydrogen combustion produces water vapour rather than carbon dioxide, these systems do not generate direct carbon emissions at the point of use. However, their overall climate impact depends on how the hydrogen is produced. Hydrogen boilers can in principle be integrated into gas-based heating infrastructure if distribution networks and appliances are adapted to handle hydrogen.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Offers a potential pathway to decarbonise gas-based heating systems in buildings where hydrogen infrastructure becomes available.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Inclined or deep horizontal wells heat pump", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Inclined or deep horizontal wells heat pump", "name": "Inclined or deep horizontal wells heat pump", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Other heat pumps technologies" ], "description": "Inclined or deep horizontal wells heat pumps use underground heat exchangers installed at an angle or horizontally at significant depth to exchange heat with the ground. Instead of the conventional vertical boreholes used in ground-source heat pumps, these systems drill wells that extend several hundred metres underground in inclined or horizontal directions. This star-shaped configuration allows multiple heat exchangers to be connected to a single drilling point, significantly reducing the surface area required for installation. By accessing deeper and more stable ground temperatures, these systems can deliver performance similar to conventional ground-source heat pumps while making geothermal heating possible in dense urban environments or retrofit applications.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Expands the applicability of geothermal heat pump systems in buildings where space constraints limit the use of conventional ground-source heat exchangers.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Integrated heat pump with storage for heating and cooling", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Integrated heat pump with storage for heating and cooling", "name": "Integrated heat pump with storage for heating and cooling", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Air-source heat pumps" ], "description": "Integrated heat pump systems combine a heat pump with thermal storage in a single package designed to provide heating, cooling and sometimes domestic hot water. The storage component typically consists of a water tank or another thermal storage medium that can store heat or cold produced by the heat pump. By integrating storage with the heat pump and coordinating their operation through a dedicated control strategy, the system can balance energy production and demand more effectively. This configuration allows the heat pump to operate for longer and more stable periods, improving overall system performance and reducing the need for frequent cycling.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Improves the performance and flexibility of heat pump systems in buildings by combining heating, cooling and thermal storage within a coordinated system.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Interval-time of use meter", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Interval-time of use meter", "name": "Interval-time of use meter", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Building energy management systems" ], "description": "Interval time-of-use meters are electricity meters designed to record energy consumption during specific time intervals and link this consumption to electricity tariffs that vary throughout the day. These meters can activate connected equipment during periods when electricity prices are lower, typically during off-peak hours. For example, devices such as electric water heaters or storage heaters can be programmed to operate automatically when electricity tariffs are reduced. By measuring consumption across defined time intervals and enabling automated switching of appliances, these meters help shift electricity demand away from peak periods of grid usage.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity transmission and distribution", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Encourages buildings to shift electricity consumption to off-peak periods, helping reduce peak demand on electricity systems and improving grid efficiency.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Lighting control system", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Lighting control system", "name": "Lighting control system", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Lighting technologies and control systems" ], "description": "Lighting control systems regulate when and how lighting operates in buildings using sensors, timers and automated controls. These systems typically combine occupancy sensors, daylight sensors and dimming controls to adjust lighting levels according to the presence of occupants and the amount of natural daylight available. In many modern buildings, these controls are integrated with LED lighting so that electrical input can be reduced when daylight is sufficient or lights can automatically switch off when spaces are empty. By aligning lighting operation with real building use, these systems can reduce electricity consumption for lighting by around 20 to 40 percent, depending on building usage and occupant behaviour.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity transmission and distribution", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Lighting accounts for a significant share of electricity use in buildings, particularly in commercial and office spaces. Control systems reduce unnecessary operation of lighting equipment and help lower overall electricity demand for building services.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Liquid or solid desiccant evaporative cooling system", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Liquid or solid desiccant evaporative cooling system", "name": "Liquid or solid desiccant evaporative cooling system", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Evaporative cooling" ], "description": "Liquid or solid desiccant evaporative cooling systems combine evaporative cooling with a desiccant material that removes moisture from the air. The desiccant, either a liquid solution or a solid material in a rotating wheel, absorbs water vapour from incoming air due to the difference in vapour pressure between the desiccant and the ambient air. After dehumidification, the air can be cooled more effectively through evaporation. The desiccant is then regenerated using heat, which can come from solar thermal collectors, waste heat or other thermal sources. By separating humidity control from temperature control, these systems can significantly reduce electricity consumption for cooling, with potential reductions of 30–90% compared with conventional cooling systems, and up to 80% reduction in peak electricity demand.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Improves cooling efficiency in buildings by combining evaporative cooling with humidity control, reducing electricity demand for air conditioning.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Magnetocaloric cooling", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Magnetocaloric cooling", "name": "Magnetocaloric cooling", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Solid-state equipment cooling" ], "description": "Magnetocaloric cooling is a solid-state cooling technology based on the magnetocaloric effect, where certain ferromagnetic materials change temperature when exposed to a magnetic field. When the material is magnetised, the alignment of its magnetic moments increases its temperature; when the magnetic field is removed, the material cools. By cycling this process and transferring heat through heat exchangers, the system can move heat from a cooled space to the environment. Unlike conventional air-conditioning systems, magnetocaloric cooling uses solid refrigerant materials rather than gaseous refrigerants. Among solid-state cooling technologies it is currently one of the most mature, and its efficiency is estimated to be around 25% higher than the best available vapour-compression cooling systems under certain operating conditions.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Magnetocaloric cooling could provide a high-efficiency alternative to vapour-compression refrigeration while avoiding conventional refrigerants. Its potential efficiency improvements and solid-state operation make it one of the most promising alternatives for future cooling technologies.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Membrane heat pump", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Membrane heat pump", "name": "Membrane heat pump", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Other heat pumps technologies" ], "description": "Membrane heat pumps provide cooling and dehumidification or heating and humidification using permeable membranes and a vacuum pump rather than a conventional vapour compression cycle. The membranes selectively allow water vapour to pass through them while separating the air streams, which enables independent control of temperature and humidity. Water is typically used as the working fluid instead of synthetic refrigerants. Because the system separates sensible heat and latent heat processes, it can operate at lower pressures and with simpler mechanical components. Experimental systems have demonstrated energy efficiency ratios around twice the average performance of conventional vapour compression cooling systems.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Offers a potential high-efficiency alternative to conventional cooling systems while avoiding the use of synthetic refrigerants.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Metal hydride heat pump", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Metal hydride heat pump", "name": "Metal hydride heat pump", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Other heat pumps technologies" ], "description": "Metal hydride heat pumps operate using reversible chemical reactions between hydrogen gas and metal alloys. When hydrogen is absorbed by a metal hydride material, heat is released; when hydrogen is desorbed from the material, heat is absorbed. By alternating these reactions between two reactors operating at different temperatures and pressures, the system can transfer heat from a low temperature source to a higher temperature sink. This process allows the heat pump to operate without mechanical compressors. Hydrogen acts as the working fluid circulating between the reactors, while the metal hydrides act as the heat storage and reaction medium.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Provides a non-mechanical heat pump concept that could be integrated into hydrogen-based energy systems for building heating.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Natural\/hydrocarbon refrigerants", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Natural\/hydrocarbon refrigerants", "name": "Natural\/hydrocarbon refrigerants", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Other heat pumps technologies" ], "description": "Natural refrigerants are substances that occur naturally in the environment and can be used in refrigeration and heat pump systems. Common examples include carbon dioxide (CO2), propane, ammonia and other hydrocarbons. These refrigerants can replace conventional fluorinated gases used in many cooling systems, which often have very high global warming potential if leaked. For example, CO2 heat pump water heaters operate in a transcritical cycle, where the refrigerant behaves like a gas but has the density of a liquid at high pressure, which can improve heat transfer performance. Hydrocarbon refrigerants such as propane are increasingly used in heat pumps and refrigeration equipment because they combine good thermodynamic performance with very low global warming potential compared with many conventional refrigerants.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, 6, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Replacing fluorinated refrigerants with natural refrigerants can significantly reduce the climate impact of cooling and heat pump systems in buildings.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Organic LED", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Organic LED", "name": "Organic LED", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Lighting technologies and control systems" ], "description": "Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) produce light using thin layers of organic semiconductor materials placed between two electrodes. When an electric current passes through these layers, the material emits light directly from the surface of the device. Unlike conventional LEDs, which behave as small point sources, OLEDs generate a uniform and diffuse light across a larger surface. The technology can also be manufactured on flexible substrates, allowing lighting elements to be integrated into walls, ceilings, furniture or other architectural surfaces. OLEDs are widely used today in displays such as smartphones and televisions, while their use in general lighting remains more limited due to cost and shorter lifetimes compared with conventional LEDs.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Offers an efficient solid-state lighting technology that can expand the integration of lighting into building surfaces while reducing electricity use for lighting.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Packaged air conditioners", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Packaged air conditioners", "name": "Packaged air conditioners", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Air conditioners" ], "description": "Packaged air conditioners are self-contained cooling units in which all the main components of the refrigeration cycle are integrated into a single cabinet. These components include the compressor, condenser, evaporator and expansion device. The unit is typically installed outside the building or on the roof, while cooled air is distributed indoors through ductwork. The system operates using the vapour compression refrigeration cycle in which a refrigerant absorbs heat from indoor air and releases it outside. Because all major components are contained within one unit, packaged systems are relatively straightforward to install and maintain and are commonly used in commercial buildings and large residential applications.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Provides a widely deployed cooling solution for buildings, helping meet growing demand for space cooling.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Pellet burning stove and boiler", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Pellet burning stove and boiler", "name": "Pellet burning stove and boiler", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Building heating from bioenergy" ], "description": "Pellet stoves and boilers are heating systems that burn compressed biomass pellets to produce heat for space heating and, in many cases, domestic hot water. The pellets are typically made from compressed wood residues such as sawdust and are fed automatically from a storage hopper into the combustion chamber. Modern pellet systems include automated fuel feeding, controlled air supply and electronic combustion management, allowing them to operate with relatively stable and efficient combustion compared with traditional wood-burning appliances. Pellet boilers can supply central heating systems for entire buildings, while pellet stoves are often used to heat individual rooms. Because pellets have a high energy density and uniform size, they allow automated fuel handling and more controlled combustion than traditional firewood systems.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation", "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Provides a renewable heating option for buildings by replacing fossil-fuel boilers with biomass-based heating systems when sustainable biomass resources are available.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Programmable thermostat", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Programmable thermostat", "name": "Programmable thermostat", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Building energy management systems" ], "description": "Programmable thermostats control heating and cooling systems according to schedules defined by building occupants. Users can set temperature levels for different times of the day or week so the HVAC system automatically reduces heating or cooling when spaces are unoccupied and restores comfort when needed. More advanced versions, often referred to as smart thermostats, incorporate features such as occupancy sensors, remote control through mobile applications, predictive algorithms and zoning capabilities that regulate temperatures in different parts of the building. By automatically adjusting operation to real usage patterns, these systems can typically reduce heating and cooling energy consumption by around 20–40% depending on climate, building type and user behaviour.", "supplyChain": [ "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Improves energy efficiency in buildings by aligning heating and cooling operation with actual occupancy and usage patterns.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Proportional hydraulic control for buildings", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Proportional hydraulic control for buildings", "name": "Proportional hydraulic control for buildings", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Building energy management systems" ], "description": "Proportional hydraulic control systems regulate the distribution of heat within buildings connected to central heating or district heating systems. These systems control the flow of hot water delivered to individual apartments or zones through hydraulic valves that adjust continuously according to heating demand. By modulating the water flow instead of simply switching heating on or off, proportional hydraulic control provides more stable temperature regulation across the building. The system typically acts as an interface between the central heat supply and the internal heating distribution system, helping balance heat delivery between multiple apartments.", "supplyChain": [ "Heat end use" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Improves temperature regulation and energy efficiency in buildings with centralised heating systems by providing more precise control of heat distribution.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Quad-generation (CCHP +)", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Quad-generation (CCHP +)", "name": "Quad-generation (CCHP +)", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Polygeneration systems" ], "description": "Quad-generation systems extend traditional cogeneration and trigeneration concepts by producing electricity, heating, cooling and captured carbon dioxide from a single fuel source. The system typically generates electricity using a gas engine, turbine or fuel cell. Waste heat from the electricity generation process is recovered and used for space heating, domestic hot water or to drive absorption chillers that provide cooling. In quad-generation systems, part of the exhaust stream is also treated to capture CO2, which can then be used for industrial processes, greenhouses or other applications. By recovering several useful energy streams from the same fuel input, these systems can reach very high overall energy efficiencies, significantly higher than conventional power generation where waste heat is lost.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Maximises energy utilisation in buildings by simultaneously producing multiple useful energy services from the same energy source.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Shallow ground-source heat pump", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Shallow ground-source heat pump", "name": "Shallow ground-source heat pump", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Other heat pumps technologies" ], "description": "Shallow ground-source heat pumps transfer heat between a building and the ground using buried heat exchangers installed a few metres below the surface. Because underground temperatures remain relatively stable throughout the year, the ground provides a more consistent heat source in winter and a heat sink in summer than outdoor air. A refrigerant cycle inside the heat pump extracts heat from the ground for space heating or rejects heat to the ground for cooling. Compared with air-source heat pumps, these systems can achieve higher and more stable performance, particularly in cold climates where outdoor air temperatures can drop significantly.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Provides high-efficiency heating and cooling in buildings by using the stable temperature of the ground as a renewable thermal source.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Smart meter", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Smart meter", "name": "Smart meter", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Building energy management systems" ], "description": "Smart meters are electronic devices that measure electricity consumption at short time intervals and communicate this information to utilities and building users. Unlike traditional meters that only record total energy use, smart meters can record consumption hourly or at even shorter intervals and transmit the data regularly through communication networks. Many smart meters support two-way communication, allowing utilities to send information such as time-based electricity prices or demand response signals to buildings. This detailed monitoring enables better understanding of energy consumption patterns and allows building systems and appliances to respond to changing electricity prices or grid conditions.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity transmission and distribution", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Enables demand response and more efficient electricity use in buildings by providing detailed consumption data and supporting time-based electricity pricing.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Split air conditioners", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Split air conditioners", "name": "Split air conditioners", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Air conditioners" ], "description": "Split air conditioners are cooling systems in which the main components of the refrigeration cycle are separated into two units. The outdoor unit contains the compressor and the condenser, while the indoor unit contains the evaporator and the air handling components that distribute cooled air into the room. A refrigerant line connects the two units and allows heat to be transferred from inside the building to the outside environment. Like other air conditioning systems, split units operate using the vapour compression refrigeration cycle. Because the compressor is located outside the building, split systems provide quieter indoor operation and are widely used in residential and small commercial buildings.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "One of the most widely deployed cooling technologies in buildings, helping meet increasing demand for space cooling in residential and commercial sectors.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Thermo-acoustic heat pump", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Thermo-acoustic heat pump", "name": "Thermo-acoustic heat pump", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Other heat pumps technologies" ], "description": "Thermo-acoustic heat pumps generate heating or cooling using acoustic waves instead of a mechanical compressor. In these systems, sound waves travel through a pressurised gas inside a resonator tube. The oscillating pressure and temperature variations created by the sound wave drive heat transfer along a structure called a stack, allowing heat to be moved from one end of the device to the other. Some recent designs replace conventional compressors with acoustic drivers or oscillating pistons operating at frequencies around 100 Hz in a closed vessel filled with gases such as helium at pressures of around 50 bar. Because the system contains few moving parts and does not require conventional refrigerants, thermo-acoustic heat pumps are being explored as a potential alternative for heating and cooling technologies.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ null, null, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Offers a potential refrigerant-free alternative to conventional heat pump systems with flexible operating temperatures.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Thermoelectric (peltier effect) cooling", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Thermoelectric (peltier effect) cooling", "name": "Thermoelectric (peltier effect) cooling", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Solid-state equipment cooling" ], "description": "Thermoelectric cooling uses the Peltier effect to move heat when an electric current passes through the junction of two different semiconductor materials. When direct current flows across the junction, heat is absorbed on one side of the device and released on the other, allowing heat to be pumped away from the cooled space. Thermoelectric modules are typically composed of arrays of semiconductor pellets placed between two conductive plates, with the hot side connected to a heat sink to dissipate heat. The system has no moving parts and does not use refrigerant gases, which makes it compact and reliable. Thermoelectric cooling is widely used in electronics cooling and small refrigeration devices, but its efficiency remains significantly lower than conventional vapour-compression systems for building-scale cooling.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Provides a refrigerant-free solid-state cooling technology, although its relatively low efficiency currently limits its relevance for large-scale building cooling.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Trigeneration (CCHP)", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Trigeneration (CCHP)", "name": "Trigeneration (CCHP)", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Polygeneration systems" ], "description": "Trigeneration systems, also known as combined cooling, heating and power (CCHP), produce electricity while simultaneously recovering the waste heat generated during power production. The system typically uses a gas engine, turbine or fuel cell to generate electricity. Instead of rejecting the heat produced during this process, the system captures it and uses it for space heating or domestic hot water. The recovered heat can also drive absorption chillers that produce cooling, allowing the system to deliver electricity, heating and cooling from the same fuel input. By using energy that would otherwise be wasted, trigeneration systems can reach overall efficiencies often exceeding 70 to 80 percent.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Improves energy efficiency in buildings by simultaneously producing electricity, heating and cooling from a single energy source.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Variable refrigerant flow heat pump", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Variable refrigerant flow heat pump", "name": "Variable refrigerant flow heat pump", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Air conditioners" ], "description": "Variable refrigerant flow (VRF) air conditioning and heat pump systems are advanced heating and cooling systems that regulate the amount of refrigerant circulating between an outdoor unit and multiple indoor units. Instead of operating at a fixed output, the system continuously adjusts the refrigerant flow to match the heating or cooling demand of different zones within the building. A single outdoor unit containing the compressor and condenser can serve many indoor units that provide heating or cooling to individual rooms or spaces. This modulation allows the system to maintain stable indoor temperatures while improving energy efficiency compared with systems that operate in simple on and off cycles. Some VRF systems can also provide heating and cooling simultaneously in different zones of a building.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Improves energy efficiency and thermal comfort in buildings by providing flexible heating and cooling control across multiple zones.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Vuilleumier heat pump", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Vuilleumier heat pump", "name": "Vuilleumier heat pump", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Thermally-driven heat pump" ], "description": "The Vuilleumier heat pump is a thermally driven heat pump that transfers heat through the cyclic compression and expansion of a gas between chambers at different temperatures. Instead of using mechanical compression powered by electricity, the system is driven by an external heat source. The device contains two displacers that move a working gas, typically helium, between hot, intermediate and cold zones, creating a thermodynamic cycle that can move heat from a low-temperature source to a higher-temperature sink. The technology combines elements of a heat engine and a heat pump within the same system. Reported performance for heating corresponds to a coefficient of performance (COP) of around 1.6, which is lower than electric heat pumps but allows the system to operate using thermal energy sources such as combustion heat or solar thermal energy.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Provides a thermally driven alternative to electric heat pumps, enabling heating systems that can operate using thermal energy sources rather than electricity.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Water-source heat pump using waste water", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Water-source heat pump using waste water", "name": "Water-source heat pump using waste water", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Ground-source and water-source heat pumps" ], "description": "Water-source heat pumps using wastewater, often called sewage heat recovery, extract thermal energy from municipal or building wastewater streams. Wastewater from showers, sinks or sewer networks typically maintains temperatures between 10 °C and 25 °C, providing a relatively stable source of low-grade heat. A heat exchanger captures this heat from the wastewater and a heat pump upgrades it to useful temperatures for space heating or domestic hot water. In cooling mode, the system can also reject heat from the building back into the wastewater stream. Because wastewater temperatures fluctuate less than outdoor air temperatures, these systems can achieve high coefficients of performance (COP) compared with conventional air-source heat pumps.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Improves building energy efficiency by recovering waste heat from wastewater streams and converting it into useful heating energy.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Water-to-water heat pump", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Water-to-water heat pump", "name": "Water-to-water heat pump", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Ground-source and water-source heat pumps" ], "description": "Water-to-water heat pumps transfer heat between two water circuits to provide heating or cooling for buildings. The system uses a refrigeration cycle to extract heat from a water source, such as groundwater, surface water or a district water loop, and raise it to a useful temperature for space heating or domestic hot water. In cooling mode, the process is reversed and heat from the building is rejected to the water source. Because water temperatures are generally more stable than outdoor air temperatures, water-to-water heat pumps can achieve higher and more stable performance than air-source systems. These systems are particularly well suited for hydronic distribution systems in buildings, where heating or cooling is delivered through water-based networks such as radiators, underfloor heating or chilled water loops.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Provides highly efficient heating and cooling in buildings by using stable water sources as heat reservoirs.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Wood-burning stove", "breadcrumb": "Buildings > Wood-burning stove", "name": "Wood-burning stove", "sector": [ "Buildings", "Operations and equipment", "Heating, cooling and ventilation technologies", "Building heating from bioenergy" ], "description": "Wood-burning stoves produce heat through the direct combustion of firewood inside a closed combustion chamber connected to a chimney. Unlike traditional open fireplaces, the enclosed design improves combustion efficiency by controlling airflow and directing hot combustion gases through the stove before they exit through the flue. Heat is transferred to the room through radiation from the stove body and through convection of heated air. Modern wood stoves often include improved combustion chambers and secondary air systems that allow unburned gases to combust more completely, increasing efficiency and reducing smoke emissions compared with older designs.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use", "Heat generation", "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", "C", "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Represents a traditional biomass heating technology that is gradually being replaced by more efficient biomass boilers and advanced combustion systems in buildings.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ammonia turbine", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Ammonia turbine", "name": "Ammonia turbine", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Power generation", "Use of hydrogen-based fuels" ], "description": "The direct use of ammonia has been successfully demonstrated in micro gas turbines with a power capacity of up to 50 kW. In larger gas turbines, the slow reaction kinetics of ammonia with air, flame stability and the NOx emissions are issues being investigated in ongoing research activities.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels use", "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "There are still technical challenges associated with moving to larger gas turbines.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Co-firing of ammonia in coal power plants", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Co-firing of ammonia in coal power plants", "name": "Co-firing of ammonia in coal power plants", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Power generation", "Use of hydrogen-based fuels" ], "description": "Co-firing of ammonia in existing coal power plants can be an option to reduce the CO2 emissions impact of these plants in the near term. Blending shares of up to 20% in energy terms are considered feasible with only minor adjustments to a coal power plant. Blending shares of 20% have been achieved without any problem in commercial scale powerplants. Furthermore, in order to eliminate GHG emissions from coal-fired boilers, pure ammonia burners are being developed to achieve high mixing and firing rates.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels use", "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Option to reduce the carbon impact of existing coal-fired power plants, if the ammonia is low-emission.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Co-firing of ammonia in gas turbines", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Co-firing of ammonia in gas turbines", "name": "Co-firing of ammonia in gas turbines", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Power generation", "Use of hydrogen-based fuels" ], "description": "High shares of ammonia can be sprayed liquid directly into the combustor of natural gas turbines to reduce CO2 emissions generated in the combustion process, although this can result in higher NOx emissions than those produced without ammonia, which require control technologies.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels use", "Power generation" ], "trl": [ null, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "There are still technical challenges related to NOx emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Cracking of ammonia into hydrogen for gas turbines", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Cracking of ammonia into hydrogen for gas turbines", "name": "Cracking of ammonia into hydrogen for gas turbines", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Power generation", "Use of hydrogen-based fuels" ], "description": "Ammonia can be cracked into hydrogen and nitrogen (by a thermal and catalytic decomposition), so that the produced mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen is burnt in the combustor of the gas turbine. The heat required for decomposing (or cracking) the ammonia at temperature levels of 600-1000°C, depending on the catalyst, can be partially supplied by the hot gas turbine exhaust gases (550-650°C) when it is operated in simple cycle mode. In combined cycle mode, the energy supplied for decomposition would slightly reduce the electricity generation efficiency of the overall process. To minimise the energy demand for cracking, partial cracking of ammonia is possible where the fuel mixture is composed of hydrogen, nitrogen and ammonia.\nSmall amounts (just a few %) of residual ammonia in the cracking product gas can lead to excessively high NOx emissions (few hundred ppm) if current state-of-the-art lean premixed combustion technology is applied.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels use", "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Opening the opportunity to use low-emission ammonia for flexible power generation, but also competing with other low-emission fuels for gas turbines (hydrogen, biomethane).", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "H2 blending in natural gas turbine", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > H2 blending in natural gas turbine", "name": "H2 blending in natural gas turbine", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Power generation", "Direct use of hydrogen" ], "description": "Specifically designed gas turbines can run on pure hydrogen or a hydrogen-rich syngas\/natural gas mixtures. These gas turbines using hydrogen-rich mixtures have accumulated millions of hours of operation at large scale, whereas in the case of using pure hydrogen, they have reached a few thousands of operating hours at pre-commercial scale.\nThere are technical challenges associated with the high combustion temperature of hydrogen (NOx emissions, reliability\/flame instabilities\/flashback). For these reasons, the combustor of the gas turbine needs to be modified for gases with high hydrogen content.\nBurning (undiluted) fuel gas mixtures with hydrogen concentrations of 5-60% is possible in certain gas turbines, depending on the degree to which they have been modified. Burning (diluted) fuel gas mixtures containing hydrogen up to concentrations of 100% is possible in certain gas turbines with the addition of significant amounts of diluents such as N2\/steam to the fuel gas.\nCommercial operation of F-class gas turbines with mixtures of up to 20% of hydrogen in natural gas mixture without hardware modifications is expected by 2025. In the case of H-class gas turbines, commercial operation with mixtures containing over 50% of hydrogen is expected in new combined cycle by 2027. But many open questions and challenges remain, such as efficiency gains, NOx (which can be reduced, for example, by steam injection, which can lead to reduced system performance) and response to variability in fuel flow composition. In many cases, the H2 mixing ratio will fluctuate, and the extent to which the combustion process can respond to large variations in H2% requires further R&D.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Clean flexible generation option for supporting the integration of variable renewable energy, but also competing with other clean fuels, such as biogas\/biomethane.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hybrid hydrogen fuel cell-gas turbine system", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Hybrid hydrogen fuel cell-gas turbine system", "name": "Hybrid hydrogen fuel cell-gas turbine system", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Power generation", "Direct use of hydrogen" ], "description": "In a solid oxide fuel (SOFC)-gas turbine (GT) system, the fuel (natural gas, syngas) is converted in an SOFC. The exhaust of the SOFC is still rich with fuel and unburned hydrogen, carbon oxides (CO\/CO2) and water vapour, and can be burned directly with oxygen or air in the GT in order to produce more power (electric output). In the case of oxy-combustion (use of O2 instead of air), a relatively pure CO2 stream can be obtained for storage or use after condensation of the water in the exhaust gas of the GT. Alternatives for removing the CO2 are possible, e.g. removing the CO2 from the GT exhaust (which is the only option in the case of combustion of the remaining fuel with air), though possibly leading to lower CO2 capture rates.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Clean flexible generation option for supporting the integration of variable renewable energy. This technology benefits from higher efficiency and the option of CO2 capture, but is also a more complex technology.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Molten carbonates fuel cell", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Molten carbonates fuel cell", "name": "Molten carbonates fuel cell", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Power generation", "Direct use of hydrogen" ], "description": "Fuel cells are a further option to convert hydrogen into electricity and heat, producing only water and no direct emissions. Fuel cells can achieve high electric efficiencies of over 60% (above 80% overall efficiency when also including the heat output) and have a higher efficiency in part load than full load, which makes them particularly attractive for flexible operations such as load balancing. Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) operate with 600°C and 800-1 000°C, respectively, at higher temperatures, which allows them to run on different hydrocarbon fuels, without the need for an external reformer to produce hydrogen first. MCFCs are used in the MW scale for power generation (due to their low power density, resulting in a relatively large size). \nIn general, these fuel cells offer a versatile and adaptable choice for producing huge amounts of power, with applications in a range of settings and industries:\n- Fuel cells may be used in microgrids to provide stable, dependable, and resilient electricity to communities, particularly in rural or off-grid areas. \n- Distributed power generation, which locates small power plants close to the location of consumption, such as colleges, military sites, and wastewater treatment facilities.\n- Fuel cells can also be used in combined heat and power (CHP) systems, which use the leftover heat from the generation of electricity to provide heating or cooling. CHP systems may be very efficient and cost-effective in buildings with large energy needs, such as hospitals or colleges.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Attractive technology for back-up power and for applications where both electricity and heat are needed, but hydrogen or biomethane must be low-emission or need to be combined with CCUS.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Pure H2 gas turbine", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Pure H2 gas turbine", "name": "Pure H2 gas turbine", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Power generation", "Direct use of hydrogen" ], "description": "Specifically designed gas turbines can run on pure hydrogen or a hydrogen-rich syngas\/natural gas mixtures. These gas turbines using hydrogen-rich mixtures have accumulated millions of hours of operation at large scale, whereas in the case of using pure hydrogen, they have reached a few thousands of operating hours at precommercial scale. There are technical challenges associated with the high combustion temperature of hydrogen (NOx emissions, reliability\/flame instabilities\/flashback). For these reasons, the combustor of the gas turbine needs to be modified for gases with high hydrogen contents. Burning (undiluted) fuel gas mixtures with hydrogen concentrations of 5-60% is possible in certain gas turbines, depending on the degree to which they have been modified. Burning (diluted) fuel gas mixtures containing hydrogen up to concentrations of 100% is possible in certain gas turbines with the addition of significant amounts of diluents such as N2\/steam to the fuel gas. Commercial operation of F-class gas turbines with mixtures of up to 20% of hydrogen in natural gas mixture without hardware modifications is expected by 2025. In the case of H-class gas turbines, commercial operation with mixtures containing over 50% of hydrogen is expected in new combined cycle by 2027. But many open questions and challenges remain, such as efficiency gains, NOx (which can be reduced, for example, by steam injection, which can lead to reduced system performance) and response to variability in fuel flow composition. In many cases, the H2 mixing ratio will fluctuate, and the extent to which the combustion process can respond to large variations in H2% requires further R&D.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Clean flexible generation option for supporting the integration of variable renewable energy, but also competing with other clean fuels, such as biogas\/biomethane.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Solid oxide fuel cell", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Solid oxide fuel cell", "name": "Solid oxide fuel cell", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Power generation", "Direct use of hydrogen" ], "description": "Fuel cells are a further option to convert hydrogen into electricity and heat, producing only water and no direct emissions. Fuel cells can achieve high electric efficiencies of over 60% (above 80% overall efficiency when also including the heat output) and have a higher efficiency in part load than full load, which makes them particularly attractive for flexible operations such as load balancing. Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) operate with 600°C and 800-1 000°C, respectively, at higher temperatures, which allows them to run on different hydrocarbon fuels, without the need for an external reformer to produce hydrogen first. MCFCs are used in the MW scale for power generation (due to their low power density, resulting in a relatively large size). \nIn general, these fuel cells offer a versatile and adaptable choice for producing huge amounts of power, with applications in a range of settings and industries:\n- Fuel cells may be used in microgrids to provide stable, dependable, and resilient electricity to communities, particularly in rural or off-grid areas. \n- Distributed power generation, which locates small power plants close to the location of consumption, such as colleges, military sites, and wastewater treatment facilities.\n- Fuel cells can also be used in combined heat and power (CHP) systems, which use the leftover heat from the generation of electricity to provide heating or cooling. CHP systems may be very efficient and cost-effective in buildings with large energy needs, such as hospitals or colleges.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Attractive technology for back-up power and for applications where both electricity and heat are needed, but hydrogen or biomethane must be be low-emission or need to be combined with CCUS.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Battery storage system with grid-forming inverter", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Battery storage system with grid-forming inverter", "name": "Battery storage system with grid-forming inverter", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Capacity management" ], "description": "A battery storage system with a grid-forming inverter is a utility-scale battery (typically lithium-ion today) whose power electronics can set the grid’s voltage and frequency rather than just follow them. Unlike conventional “grid-following” inverters that need a strong grid to latch onto, grid-forming batteries behave like a virtual synchronous generator: they provide synthetic inertia, short-circuit strength and fast frequency and voltage control. This lets them stabilise weak or highly renewable grids, form microgrids during outages, and black-start sections of the network. Grid-forming batteries can co-locate with solar or wind farms, at substations, or inside industrial or community microgrids. As coal and gas plants retire, these batteries increasingly provide the “invisible” system services—such as inertia and system strength—that used to be delivered by rotating machines, unlocking higher penetrations of inverter-based renewables at lower cost and with fewer new transmission upgrades.", "supplyChain": [ "Flexibility (grids)", "Electricity transmission and distribution" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Provide stability to the network to enable a power system with high shares of wind and solar PV, as some of the system services provided by traditional generators based on rotating machines (hydropower and thermal power plants, for example) will need compensation when these traditional generators play smaller roles in the electricity mix.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) insulated cables", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) insulated cables", "name": "Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) insulated cables", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Cables and conductors" ], "description": "Cross-Linked Polyethylene (XLPE) insulated cables are power cables where the main insulation around the conductor is polyethylene that has been “cross-linked” - the polymer chains are chemically bonded into a 3-D network. \nThis boosts thermal stability, mechanical robustness and dielectric strength compared with conventional thermoplastic PE. XLPE can operate at higher temperatures (typically 90 °C continuous, higher in emergency), enabling more current for a given conductor size. It is also water-resistant, chemically stable and relatively light, which is important for long underground and submarine links. Thanks to these properties, XLPE has become the dominant insulation for medium- and high-voltage AC cables, and is now widely used for modern extruded HVDC cables up to 525 kV.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity transmission and distribution" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", "C", "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "XLPE enables rapid grid reinforcement and undergrounding in constrained corridors, long-distance bulk transfer from remote renewables, and high-capacity offshore wind export and interconnectors at ±525 kV - cutting curtailment and integrating variable generation at scale. Higher ratings per circuit reduce landfall count and seabed disturbance versus lower-voltage alternatives.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Digital twins", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Digital twins", "name": "Digital twins", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Control systems and monitoring" ], "description": "Digital twins in the power grid are virtual representations of physical grid assets, networks or even whole power systems, continuously fed with real-time and historical data. They combine network models, SCADA and IoT data, weather information and market signals, and can run simulations to predict how the grid will behave under different conditions. In transmission and distribution, grid digital twins underpin advanced planning studies, optimal reinforcement decisions and dynamic operation, for example through scenario analysis, contingency analysis and “what-if” studies for renewable integration or outages. They also support predictive maintenance by linking asset health data with failure models, and they enable new services such as flexibility markets, virtual power plants and dynamic line rating. Standards bodies and utilities increasingly view digital twins as a cornerstone of future, highly digitalised power systems where planning, operations, markets and customers are all coordinated through shared, data-driven models.", "supplyChain": [ "Flexibility (grids)", "Electricity transmission and distribution", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, "B", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Cuts planning cycles, de-risks grid reinforcement, and optimizes asset life - accelerating connections and integrating high VRE at lower cost.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Distributed energy resource management systems (DERMS)", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Distributed energy resource management systems (DERMS)", "name": "Distributed energy resource management systems (DERMS)", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Control systems and monitoring" ], "description": "Distributed Energy Resource Management Systems (DERMS) are software platforms that monitor, optimize, and control large fleets of distributed energy resources (DERs) such as rooftop PV, battery storage, EV chargers, smart thermostats and flexible loads across the distribution grid. They sit alongside or integrated with Advanced Distribution Management Systems (ADMS) and market platforms, providing visibility to the low-voltage network and enabling real-time, automated control of DERs. By forecasting load and generation, enforcing network constraints (voltage, thermal limits), and dispatching DER flexibility, DERMS help DSOs, retailers and aggregators operate virtual power plants, manage non-wires alternatives and deliver grid services (e.g. peak shaving, congestion management, voltage support). As DER penetration rises, DERMS become essential to maintain reliability, unlock demand-side flexibility, integrate high shares of renewables, and coordinate customer-owned resources with grid needs and wholesale markets.", "supplyChain": [ "Flexibility (grids)", "Electricity transmission and distribution" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "As we add large amounts of distributed solar, batteries, and flexible demand, a DERMS is vital to harness these for grid stability and efficiency. Without coordination, DERs can cause issues like reverse power flows, voltage swings, or local overloads – leading utilities to impose limits on solar\/EV adoption. DERMS solves this by actively managing these resources: it increases hosting capacity for rooftop solar (so more PV can be installed without costly grid upgrades) by using functions like voltage control and targeted curtailment only when needed.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Dynamic line rating", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Dynamic line rating", "name": "Dynamic line rating", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Capacity management" ], "description": "Line ratings indicate the current carrying capacity and thus the maximum possible transmission capacity of a transmission line. They are calculated from a combination of factors such as conductor size and resistance, conductor distance to the ground and ambient weather conditions as temperature, solar irradiation and wind speed. \nTransmission lines are traditionally operated using a static line rating, assuming conservative conditions to minimize the risk of dangerous line failures. However, static line ratings cause significant under-utilisation of transmission assets, as conservative conditions rarely come to fruition beyond a few hours a day. \nDynamic line rating systems change the amount of current that can flow through a line in response to e.g. real-time weather conditions and allow transmission system operators efficient and effective operation. This helps transmission line operators to manage congestion and increases a grid's resilience and reliability.", "supplyChain": [ "Flexibility (grids)", "Electricity transmission and distribution", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, "A", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Alternatives exist for increasing grid capacity (building new lines, energy storage, power-flow controllers, distributed energy resources, and demand response), but few are near-term, low-cost options like Dynamic Line Rating (DLR).", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Flexible alternating current transmission systems", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Flexible alternating current transmission systems", "name": "Flexible alternating current transmission systems", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Control systems and monitoring" ], "description": "Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems (FACTS) is an umbrella term for a suite of technologies that have the ability to provide reactive power support, enhance controllability, improve stability and increase power transfer capability of AC transmission systems: Key services to accommodate the evolution towards variable renewables, distributed generation and newly electrified sources of demand.\nSeries compensation systems allow for the increase of power transfer capabilities, when thyristor control as well as load flow and grid control is added. Synchronous condensers provide inertia and both static and dynamic support to the overall system. Static Synchronous compensators use voltage source converters to provide reactive power support at many different voltage levels. Static VAr compensators provide a combination of power transfer capacities. Mechanically switched capacitor damping networks are highly economical for providing reactive power compensation under steady state conditions.", "supplyChain": [ "Flexibility (grids)", "Electricity transmission and distribution", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "B", "B", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Supprts operators to connect more renewables faster by strengthening weak grid areas and increasing transfer limits on existing corridors, often avoiding or deferring new overhead lines that face permitting and social-acceptance barriers. \nDynamic voltage and stability support from STATCOMs, SVCs and series compensation helps maintain reliability as synchronous generators are retired and replaced with inverter-based renewables, thereby addressing challenges such as low short-circuit strength, voltage instability and oscillations.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "HTLS conductors", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > HTLS conductors", "name": "HTLS conductors", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Cables and conductors" ], "description": "High Temperature \/ Low Sag (HTLS) conductors are advanced overhead line conductors designed to carry significantly higher current at operating temperatures typically up to 150–210 °C while maintaining acceptable mechanical clearance due to very low thermal expansion. They achieve this through special cores (carbon-fiber composite, aluminum-matrix or invar steel) and heat-resistant aluminum alloys, which limit sag even at high temperature.\nCompared with conventional ACSR\/ACSS, reconductoring existing lines with HTLS can often double ampacity without changing towers or rights-of-way, reducing permitting time and overall cost relative to building new lines.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity transmission and distribution" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "B", "B", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Grids must connect large volumes of renewables and new loads quickly, often faster than new rights-of-way can be permitted and built. Studies show that reconductoring with HTLS can typically deliver more than twice the capacity of existing lines at less than half the cost and in less than half the time of new construction, while avoiding additional land use and community impacts", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "HVDC breaker", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > HVDC breaker", "name": "HVDC breaker", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Control systems and monitoring" ], "description": "HVDC circuit breakers can enable the expansion of high-voltage direct current lines by tuning HVDC point-to-point connections into a network. This would improve reliability, enable load balancing, reduce transmission losses and facilitate cross-border energy trading. HVDC circuit breakers are crucial because, in the event of a fault on one of the lines, they can isolate it by cutting off the energy, even when extremely high power is required, while the rest of the transmission system can keep the energy flowing.", "supplyChain": [ "Flexibility (grids)", "Electricity transmission and distribution", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ null, null, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "HVDC circuit breakers can enable the expansion of high-voltage direct current lines by turning HVDC point-to-point connections into a network. This would improve reliability, enable load balancing, reduce transmission losses and facilitate cross-border energy trading.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "HVDC power transmission", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > HVDC power transmission", "name": "HVDC power transmission", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Transformation and conversion" ], "description": "A high-voltage direct current (HVDC) electric power transmission system uses direct current (DC) for the transmission of electrical power instead of the more common alternating current (AC). It allows efficient electricity transmission across long distances and supports offshore wind farm integration, particularly for large, distant offshore farms where underwater AC cabling is not feasible. \nLatest technology developments made smaller HVDC systems economical and introduced advantages such as fully controllable four-quadrant operation for independent, flexible active and reactive power control, flexible AC voltage control, contribution to network fault currents to support weak AC networks and the ability to black-start shut-down networks. Most HVDC links today run on voltages between 320 kV and 800 kV, but there are also installations up to 1100kV with transmission capacity of up to 12GW.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity transmission and distribution" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "HVDC enables efficient long-distance transport of renewable energy – connecting remote solar farms, wind farms (especially offshore), and hydro sites to consumption centers. It reduces transmission losses and bottlenecks, meaning fewer generation needs and lower emissions for the same delivered energy. HVDC links also strengthen grid reliability, allowing countries to share renewable resources e.g., sending excess daytime solar from one region to another, or wind power across borders", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hybrid flexible demand and battery network (industry demand response)", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Hybrid flexible demand and battery network (industry demand response)", "name": "Hybrid flexible demand and battery network (industry demand response)", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Capacity management" ], "description": "A hybrid network is a portfolio of energy-consuming equipment and batteries that come together to provide demand response services to the electricity grid. Using smart grid principles, the system intelligently rotates energy-consuming equipment based on their ability for flexible energy consumption, and fills in any gaps with the network's batteries. In this way, the system ensures reliability to energy-consuming industries without them necessarily needing to install batteries on-site.", "supplyChain": [ "Flexibility (grids)", "Electricity transmission and distribution", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Technologies that enable industry to partake in demand response can provide flexibility services, thus assisting with increasing integration of variable renewable energy sources into the electricity grid. The portfolio concept enables more robust flexibility provision than individual companies can achieve in isolation.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Power grid equipment monitoring systems", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Power grid equipment monitoring systems", "name": "Power grid equipment monitoring systems", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Control systems and monitoring" ], "description": "Power grid equipment monitoring systems use sensors, intelligent electronic devices (IEDs), communications and analytics platforms to track the health and loading of grid assets in real time. They cover transformers, switchgear, overhead lines, cables, capacitors and other substation equipment from transmission level down to distribution. Typical measurements include temperature, vibration, partial discharge, oil and gas quality, mechanical position, current and voltage waveforms, plus environmental data such as wind and ambient temperature. These data streams are collected via SCADA, digital substations and IoT gateways and processed by on-premise or cloud-based asset performance management (APM) platforms that estimate asset health, remaining life and risk of failure. The result is a shift from time-based to condition-based maintenance, fewer truck rolls, earlier fault detection and more dynamic operation of existing infrastructure, including grid-enhancing technologies like dynamic line rating for overhead lines.", "supplyChain": [ "Flexibility (grids)", "Electricity transmission and distribution" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Power grid equipment monitoring systems are critical enablers of a high-renewables, electrified energy system. By improving visibility of asset health and real-time capacity, they support higher utilization of existing lines and transformers, reducing the need for new build and associated materials and land use. Early fault detection and condition-based maintenance lower outage rates and extend asset lifetimes, reducing embodied emissions from manufacturing replacements and minimizing the risk of blackouts that could disrupt electrified heating, transport and industry.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Smart electricity and district energy network double smart grid (building demand response)", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Smart electricity and district energy network double smart grid (building demand response)", "name": "Smart electricity and district energy network double smart grid (building demand response)", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Capacity management" ], "description": "A double smart grid integrates smart electricity networks with district heating and cooling systems so that buildings can coordinate their electricity and thermal energy use. Instead of operating these systems independently, buildings equipped with smart controls can respond to signals from the electricity grid or district energy network. For example, heating or cooling loads can be shifted in time, electric heat pumps can operate when renewable electricity is available, or excess electricity can be converted into heat through power-to-heat technologies. By linking electricity, heating and cooling systems, the approach allows buildings to interact with multiple energy infrastructures while using renewable energy sources such as solar photovoltaic and solar thermal energy more effectively.", "supplyChain": [ "Flexibility (grids)", "Electricity transmission and distribution", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Improves the flexibility of building energy systems by allowing electricity, heating and cooling demand to respond to energy supply conditions across interconnected networks.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Smart inverter", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Smart inverter", "name": "Smart inverter", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Control systems and monitoring" ], "description": "Smart inverters are power electronic converters that not only convert DC from solar PV, batteries or EV chargers into AC, but also provide grid-support functions defined in modern interconnection standards such as IEEE 1547-2018. These functions include autonomous voltage and frequency support (Volt-VAR, Volt-Watt, frequency-Watt), fault ride-through, soft start, ramp-rate control, and the ability to communicate with utilities or aggregators for remote configuration and dispatch. \nUnlike legacy “grid-following” inverters that simply shut down when the grid deviates from nominal conditions, smart inverters can actively stabilize local voltage and frequency, increase distribution-level hosting capacity for renewables, and provide synthetic inertia when coupled with advanced control schemes and storage. Large numbers of smart inverters can be operated autonomously, either statically or dynamically reacting to changes on the grid, or in the future remotely controlled through active and reactive power management to provide additional services to the distribution (or transmission) operator.", "supplyChain": [ "Flexibility (grids)", "Electricity transmission and distribution", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "B", "B", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Smart inverters are critical enablers for achieving high penetration of distributed and utility-scale renewables. By providing local voltage and frequency support, they increase the hosting capacity of existing distribution feeders, reducing or deferring costly grid reinforcements and enabling more PV and storage to connect quickly.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Solid-state transformers (SSTs)", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Solid-state transformers (SSTs)", "name": "Solid-state transformers (SSTs)", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Transformation and conversion" ], "description": "A solid-state transformer (SST) is an advanced power transformer that replaces the traditional 50\/60 Hz iron-core design with high-power electronics and high-frequency transformers. It converts AC or DC input through multiple stages - typically an AC\/DC rectifier, a DC\/DC high-frequency converter with a high-frequency transformer (HFT), and a DC\/AC inverter - to produce the desired output. Operating at tens of kHz allows SSTs to be smaller and lighter. This architecture enables voltage regulation, bidirectional power flow, power factor correction, and DC outputs, effectively combining a transformer and power conditioner. SSTs can supply both AC and DC (e.g., for EV charging) and respond quickly to disturbances such as voltage sags and harmonics.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity transmission and distribution" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "As electricity systems evolve to accommodate large proportions of renewables, storage, EV charging and decentralised generation, the grids need to become more flexible, dynamic and capable of bidirectional flows. SSTs deliver the ability to efficiently interface AC and DC systems, support high penetration of variable renewables and electric mobility, and enable power quality and stability services that conventional transformers cannot provide. By reducing losses (due to higher efficiency and fewer conversion stages), reducing material footprint (smaller magnetic cores\/less copper), and enabling novel grid topologies (MVDC networks, hybrid AC\/DC micro-grids), SSTs support lower carbon emissions both directly and indirectly.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Sulfur hexafluoride-free high-voltage switchgear and substations", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Sulfur hexafluoride-free high-voltage switchgear and substations", "name": "Sulfur hexafluoride-free high-voltage switchgear and substations", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Transformation and conversion" ], "description": "This refers to high-voltage circuit breakers, switchgear, and substations that do not use SF6 gas as the insulating or arc-quenching medium. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) is a potent greenhouse gas (with 23,500× the GWP of CO2) traditionally used in HV equipment for its excellent dielectric properties. SF6-free technologies use alternative solutions such as vacuum interrupters combined with clean air or new gases (e.g. fluoronitrile mixtures like g³, or CO2\/O2 blends) to perform the same functions. For example, new GIS (gas-insulated switchgear) designs employ vacuum circuit breakers for arc interruption and air or climate-friendly gas at moderate pressure for insulation.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity transmission and distribution" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "SF6-free switchgear significantly reduces greenhouse gas emissions from the power grid. Traditional HV equipment leaks SF6 over time, and SF6 has an extremely long atmospheric lifetime.\nMany countries and utilities are now mandating SF6 alternatives in new projects.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Superconducting high-voltage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Superconducting high-voltage", "name": "Superconducting high-voltage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Cables and conductors" ], "description": "Superconducting high-voltage allows transfer of large amounts of power (GW level, at currents of 5-10 kA and voltages up to 350 kV) over short distances from a few hundred meters up to few kilometres with minimal line losses compared to traditional resistive counterparts. Superconducting high-voltage wires today can conduct more than 150 times the power of copper or aluminium wires of the same dimensions.\nMaterials currently known to conduct at ordinary pressures become superconducting at temperatures far below ambient, and therefore require cooling. Metallic superconductors usually work below −200 °C. So called high-temperature superconductors (HTS) usually work at temperatures above 77 Kelvin (-196.2°C), the boiling point of liquid nitrogen.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity transmission and distribution" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Superconducting high-voltage transmission supports moving more power through existing or minimal new corridors with far lower losses than conventional lines. This can defer or avoid new overhead lines, reducing environmental and public-acceptance issues while meeting growing electrification and renewable needs. Because HTS cables deliver high capacity at lower voltage, they can also remove some inner-city substations, saving land, materials, and transformer losses. Superconducting cables are therefore very well suited for dense areas such as city centres.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Transactive energy", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Transactive energy", "name": "Transactive energy", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Capacity management" ], "description": "Transactive energy (TE) is a set of market-based control mechanisms that coordinate electricity supply and demand using price or other value signals in (near) real time, often at the distribution level. Instead of a one-way tariff from utility to customer, devices and actors (DERs, buildings, EVs, microgrids, aggregators) bid for consumption or injection based on their preferences and constraints, and an automated market engine clears these bids while respecting grid limits. \nWith increasing DER penetration, TE is being explored as a way to unlock flexible demand, congestion relief, and local balancing, often combined with digital platforms, advanced metering and, in some pilots, blockchain-based settlement.wo-way communication, advanced metering infrastructure, remote sensing and control technologies on the grid, and software trading platforms.", "supplyChain": [ "Flexibility (grids)", "Electricity transmission and distribution", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Transactive energy is highly relevant for net-zero power systems because it can mobilize distributed flexibility at scale, reducing the need for fossil-fuel peakers and oversized network reinforcements. By exposing customers and DERs to granular price or value signals, TE encourages load shifting, self-consumption of local renewables, and coordinated operation of storage and EVs, which collectively reduce curtailment and integrate higher shares of variable wind and solar", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ultra-high voltage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Ultra-high voltage", "name": "Ultra-high voltage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Cables and conductors" ], "description": "A power system is considered ultra-high voltage (UHV) at 800 kV and above. A higher voltage results in a lower current in the conductor at the same power transmitted. This leads to lower energy losses as most of the losses are current dependent, but also can save some material due to a lower diameter of conductor needed.\nThe technology is available in alternating current and direct current. Currently there are lines up to ±1100 kV UHV DC and 1100 kV UHV AC in commercial operation.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity transmission and distribution" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "UHV transmission is a key enabler for net-zero power systems because it connects remote, high-capacity renewable energy bases to demand centres at scale and with low losses. The choice between alternating current (AC, no cost for converters) and direct current (DC, lower losses) will depend on the specific conditions of a transmission project.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Virtual inertia", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Virtual inertia", "name": "Virtual inertia", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Capacity management" ], "description": "Conventional power systems include a large numbers of power plants with rotating machines that operate at system frequency (synchronous generators), that provide strong inertia to the system in case of sudden changes in demand, supply or system stability in general. \nThe increase of share of non-synchronous generators in the form of solar photovoltaics and wind farms results in a decrease of system inertia and more frequency instability. Virtual inertia can be a solution that addresses these concerns, when utilised with appropriate control structures and technologies such as battery energy storage or an enhanced STATCOM system with supercaps storage. Virtual inertia can also be provided by variable renewables by coupling short term energy storage together with a power inverter\/converter and a proper grid forming mechanism. This is known as virtual synchronous generator, virtual synchronous machine or synchronverters.", "supplyChain": [ "Flexibility (grids)", "Electricity transmission and distribution", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Virtual inertia will need to continually develop. It will be important in regions that achieve a particularly high penetration of wind and solar, and that have less availability of other flexibility resources such as interconnection, or other constraints to transmission, or a poorer match of demand-side flexibility resources.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Virtual net metering - community scale solar (building demand response)", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Virtual net metering - community scale solar (building demand response)", "name": "Virtual net metering - community scale solar (building demand response)", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Capacity management" ], "description": "Virtual net metering allows electricity generated by a solar installation located outside a building to be shared among multiple electricity users. Instead of installing photovoltaic panels directly on each building, a community-scale solar system is connected to the electricity grid and its output is allocated to subscribers. The electricity produced by the shared system is credited to participants through their electricity bills, allowing them to benefit from solar generation even if their own building cannot host solar panels. This model expands access to solar energy for buildings with limited roof space, unsuitable roof orientation or other technical constraints.", "supplyChain": [ "Flexibility (grids)", "Electricity transmission and distribution", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Expands access to solar electricity in buildings by allowing users without suitable rooftop space to benefit from shared solar generation.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Virtual power plants", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Virtual power plants", "name": "Virtual power plants", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Power grids", "Capacity management" ], "description": "A Virtual Power Plant is an aggregation of distributed energy resources (DERs) (such as small generators, batteries, demand response loads, EVs, etc.) coordinated through software to operate as a unified and flexible resource in the power system. Unlike a single power plant, a VPP can be geographically dispersed across many sites, but from the grid’s perspective, it’s orchestrated to deliver services like a single plant would – e.g., providing a certain power output on schedule, or adjusting output up\/down on command. VPPs usually involve an ICT platform that monitors the status of each asset and sends control signals based on market or grid needs. There are supply-side VPPs (bundling generation like rooftop PV, micro-turbines, etc.), demand-side VPPs (controllable loads), or mixed. They participate in energy markets and ancillary service markets.", "supplyChain": [ "Flexibility (grids)", "Electricity transmission and distribution", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "VPPs enable distributed renewables and flexible loads to collectively perform like reliable power plants, which is essential for a high-renewables grid. They help incorporate DER at scale by solving the “many small pieces” problem - aggregation provides a way for, say, 10,000 rooftop solar-plus-battery systems to replace a gas peaker because the VPP can guarantee a certain output or reduction when needed.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Alkaline electrolyser", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Alkaline electrolyser", "name": "Alkaline electrolyser", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Electrolysis", "Electrolyser design" ], "description": "Water electrolysis is an electrochemical process that uses electricity to split water (H2O) into its basic components: hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). In alkaline electrolysis, this process is carried out using nickel-based electrodes and a concentrated alkaline electrolyte, typically a 25-35 wt% KOH solution.\nAlkaline electrolysers represent the most mature and widely deployed electrolysis technology. They have been operated at scales exceeding 10 MW for more than a century and currently account for approximately 60% of the globally installed electrolysis capacity. Historically, alkaline electrolysers were used to produce hydrogen for ammonia synthesis plants based on hydropower, before steam methane reforming of natural gas became the most cost-effective option. These systems were traditionally operated in baseload conditions to serve industrial needs. Both atmospheric and pressurised configurations are commercially available, with pressurised units typically operating at pressures of 15-30 bar. Alkaline electrolysers operate at relatively low temperatures, generally in the range 60-80 °C.\nThe products of water splitting at the anode may not be limited to oxygen. For example, chlorine (Cl2) is produced in the chlor-alkali process, which historically represented the largest commercial application of alkaline electrolysers. The specific products generated depend on the choice of electrolyte and catalysts used.\nThe key advantage of alkaline electrolysers lies in avoiding the need for precious materials as catalysts. As a result, they currently offer lower capital costs than other electrolysis technologies. However, alkaline electrolysers are less flexible in operation than polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolysers, which makes their integration with intermittent renewable energy sources more challenging, and less efficient. Current development efforts are focused on scaling up manufacturing to reduce costs and enable wider adoption, as well improving efficiency, durability, and dynamic operation.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production", "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Alkaline electrolysers are currently the most mature and widely installed electrolysis technology, as their relatively lower capital costs are facilitating the initial large-scale deployment of electrolytic hydrogen. Although polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolysers offer greater cost-reduction potential and more flexible operation, alkaline systems are expected to remain the dominant technology through to 2030 due to their cost advantage. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Aluminum-water reaction", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Aluminum-water reaction", "name": "Aluminum-water reaction", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Other" ], "description": "Hydrogen production from aluminium is based on the aluminium–water reaction, in which aluminium reacts with water to generate hydrogen through a redox process. In this reaction, aluminium is oxidised while water is reduced to hydrogen, forming aluminium hydroxides or oxides depending on operating conditions such as temperature and pressure. The reaction is thermodynamically favourable at ambient conditions and highly exothermic, releasing significant amounts of heat. However, in practice aluminium is protected by a stable aluminium oxide (Al2O3) layer that forms spontaneously on its surface and prevents direct contact between the metal and water, inhibiting the reaction.\nTo enable hydrogen generation, this passivating oxide layer must be disrupted or bypassed. Approaches investigated include chemical activation using alkaline or saline promoters (such as NaOH, KOH, NaCl or KCl), which can dissolve the oxide layer under ambient conditions but may introduce corrosion challenges. Other strategies rely on alloying aluminium with elements such as gallium or lithium, which inhibit oxide layer formation. Mechanical activation and the use of elevated temperatures or pressures have also been explored, although they increase energy requirements.\nFor aluminium-based hydrogen production to be economically viable, efficient recovery and recycling of aluminium is critical. After reaction with water, aluminium is converted primarily into aluminium hydroxide or alumina, which must be processed back into metallic aluminium through calcination followed by electrolytic reduction via the Hall–Héroult process. This regeneration step is energy-intensive and requires access to low-cost, low-emissions electricity. In addition, any alloying elements or chemical promoters used to enable the reaction must be recoverable at high rates to avoid excessive material losses and costs.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production", "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Hydrogen production from aluminium-water reactions is less mature than other low-emissions hydrogen pathways but is of interest as it explores the use of aluminium as a recyclable energy carrier for hydrogen and heat generation, which can be stored and transported. Its cost and emissions performance depend critically on access to abundant low-emissions electricity for aluminium re-smelting.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Anion exchange membrane electrolyser", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Anion exchange membrane electrolyser", "name": "Anion exchange membrane electrolyser", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Electrolysis", "Electrolyser design" ], "description": "Water electrolysis is an electrochemical process that uses electricity to split water (H2O) into its basic components: hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). Anion exchange membrane (AEM) electrolysers are a type of low-temperature electrolyser that combine an anion exchange membrane with nickel-based electrodes. They typically operate at temperatures between 50 °C and 60 °C and at pressures of up to 30 bar.\nAEM electrolysis combines some of the benefits of alkaline and PEM systems, potentially reducing the cost of hydrogen production. Since AEM electrolysers operate in an alkaline environment, they can use non-platinum group metal catalysts, such as nickel alloys and nickel-, iron-, or cobalt-based oxides. This also enables the use of low-cost stainless steel current collectors and nickel-based porous transport layers, instead of the expensive platinum-coated titanium required in PEM electrolysers, potentially leading to lower capital costs. Compared with alkaline electrolysers, a key advantage is that the anion exchange membrane acts as a solid electrolyte, eliminating the need for highly concentrated (25-35 wt% KOH) corrosive liquid electrolytes. AEM electrolysers can operate efficiently with dilute feed solutions (below 1 M KOH), reducing corrosion, maintenance costs, and safety risks. While operation with a pure water feed is possible, the low ionic conductivity of current membranes and ionomers generally results in low performance. Overall, AEM electrolysers are emerging as an attractive option to reduce the cost of hydrogen production, with the first small-scale applications now coming online. However, significant development is still required in terms of improving performance (efficient operation at high current densities), increase durability, and scale up the cell area.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production", "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 6, 6, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Although AEM electrolysers offer strong cost-reduction potential and the prospect of high efficiencies, they are currently the least mature electrolyser technology and are therefore likely to see slower and more limited deployment in the near term. However, they offer excellent medium- to long-term deployment potential, since they rely on fewer critical minerals and operate in a less corrosive environment than other electrolysis designs, potentially reducing degradation to increase the operating lifetime.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Autothermal reforming - gas heated reformer", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Autothermal reforming - gas heated reformer", "name": "Autothermal reforming - gas heated reformer", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Thermal processes", "CCUS-enabled" ], "description": "The combination of autothermal reforming (ATR) with a Gas Heated Reformer (GHR) is an improved design of ATR that allows for achievement of higher efficiencies, lower CO2 production and lower oxygen consumption. The ATR and GHR are in series and the GHR acts both as a pre-heater and cooler of the inlet\/outlet of the ATR. The GHR benefit is that it pre-reforms the gas going to ATR using the heat from the exhaust gases of the ATR and performs part of the reforming that would otherwise take place in the ATR. The main technical challenge for GHR is carbon deposition (metal dusting) on the shell side (high temperature from the ATR outlet at around 1100 °C to 600-800 °C). This can be solved by either material selection that can withstand the conditions and thermal cycling (cost) or by either decreasing the operating pressure or adding more steam, both of which come with penalty in process efficiency.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production", "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Autothermal reforming with CCUS can achieve high CO2 capture rates because the process generates a single, concentrated CO2 stream which, if captured, allows emissions from hydrogen production to be significantly reduced compared with unabated pathways. As a result, the technology could play a role in a Net Zero Emissions scenario, provided captured CO2 is permanently stored and upstream and midstream emissions associated with natural gas supply are minimised. It may particularly support the near- to medium-term scale-up of low-emissions hydrogen, especially where existing gas infrastructure and CO2 transport and storage networks are already available.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Autothermal reforming - single reformer", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Autothermal reforming - single reformer", "name": "Autothermal reforming - single reformer", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Thermal processes", "CCUS-enabled" ], "description": "Autothermal reforming is a process in which methane reacts catalytically in an oxygen deficient atmosphere, combining steam reforming and partial oxidation reactions. It operates at 800–1150 °C and does not require external heat input, thereby avoiding the production of a diluted CO2 stream. Unlike conventional steam methane reforming, ATR converts steam and methane to hydrogen and CO within a single reactor, using oxygen supplied by an air separation unit. This produces a single dominant CO2 rich process stream that can be readily captured. \nATR generates heat internally and does not rely on a reformer furnace operating on external source of heat, and as a result, it minimises the need to recycle a carbon containing flue gas stream, enabling more effective integration of CO2 capture technologies. Capture rates above 90% can be achieved by applying capture to the concentrated process stream. The main constraint on deployment is the high capital and operating cost of the air separation unit.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production", "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Autothermal reforming with CCUS can achieve high CO2 capture rates because the process generates a single, concentrated CO2 stream which, if captured, allows emissions from hydrogen production to be significantly reduced compared with unabated pathways. As a result, the technology could play a role in a Net Zero Emissions scenario, provided captured CO2 is permanently stored and upstream and midstream emissions associated with natural gas supply are minimised. It may particularly support the near- to medium-term scale-up of low-emissions hydrogen, especially where existing gas infrastructure and CO2 transport and storage networks are already available.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Biological hydrogen production", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Biological hydrogen production", "name": "Biological hydrogen production", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Other" ], "description": "Biological hydrogen production comprises a range of pathways in which microorganisms or biological enzymes enable hydrogen formation. These pathways can be broadly divided into biomass-based processes, where biomass-derived organic matter is converted into hydrogen, and non-biomass processes, where microorganisms act as biocatalysts for light-driven water splitting. While both fall under the broader category of biological hydrogen production, only biomass-based pathways involve the conversion of biomass feedstocks.\nNon-thermochemical biomass use produces hydrogen through biological fermentation or electrochemical processes operating at low temperatures and pressures, avoiding the high energy inputs associated with thermochemical conversion. Unlike routes such as biomass gasification, these pathways rely on microbial or bio-electrochemical activity to extract hydrogen from wet, solid or liquid biomass streams, including agricultural residues, organic wastes and biomass-derived intermediates. Although generally less mature than thermochemical routes, they offer advantages such as compatibility with high-moisture feedstocks and potential integration with wastewater treatment.\nBiological fermentative pathways convert biomass-derived organic substrates into hydrogen through enzymatic reactions. In dark fermentation, hydrogen is produced without requiring light by strict or facultative anaerobic bacteria such as Clostridium, Enterobacter and Bacillus species. These microorganisms metabolise carbohydrate-rich biomass (e.g. glucose), partially oxidising the substrate, producing hydrogen alongside CO2, organic acids (including acetic, butyric and lactic acids) and alcohols as by-products, through the action of hydrogenase enzymes. In photo-fermentation, photosynthetic bacteria - most notably purple non-sulfur (PNS) bacteria such as Rhodobacter, Rhodopseudomonas and Rhodospirillum - convert organic acids into hydrogen using light supplied by natural sunlight or artificial illumination. The process operates under anaerobic conditions and is driven primarily by nitrogenase enzymes under nitrogen-limited conditions, with hydrogenase playing a secondary role in redox balance. Dark and photo-fermentation can be combined in sequential dark\/photo-fermentation systems, where organic acids from dark fermentation serve as substrates for photo-fermentation, improving overall biomass-to-hydrogen conversion efficiency.\nElectrochemical pathways for hydrogen production from biomass use bio-electrochemical systems, most notably microbial electrolysis cells (MECs). In MECs, electroactive microorganisms grow on the anode and oxidise biodegradable organic compounds, such as organic acids, sugars or wastewater-derived substrates, releasing electrons and hydrogen-containing species. When a small external voltage is applied, electrons flow through an electrical circuit to the cathode, where hydrogen gas is produced. MECs operate under mild conditions and can valorise low-value or waste biomass streams. Common exoelectrogenic microorganisms include Escherichia coli, Geobacter, Shewanella, Pseudomonas, Rhodoferax and Citrobacter species. As MECs can directly use organic acids, they may be considered complementary to dark fermentation.\nNon-biomass and hybrid biological hydrogen production pathways use microorganisms primarily as biocatalysts, with light as the main energy input. The main example is biophotolysis, which can be implemented as direct or indirect biophotolysis. In direct biophotolysis, photosynthetic microorganisms such as microalgae or cyanobacteria produce hydrogen directly from water under illumination, while oxygen is generated at the same time, strongly inhibiting hydrogenase activity and requiring oxygen concentrations to be maintained at very low levels. In indirect biophotolysis, hydrogen and oxygen production are separated: microorganisms first produce and store carbohydrates (e.g. glycogen or starch) under light conditions, and hydrogen is subsequently produced from these stored compounds through a photo-fermentation. This separation reduces enzyme deactivation by oxygen.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production", "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Non-thermochemical biological hydrogen production enables hydrogen to be generated from wet and waste biomass streams that are not suitable for thermochemical conversion. As these processes operate at mild temperatures and pressures, they reduce energy requirements and allow integration with wastewater treatment systems. However, biological pathways are still in the early stages of development, and their deployment potential is currently limited by technological maturity and the availability of sustainable biomass feedstocks. The exception to this is biophotolysis, which does not require direct biomass input.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Biomass-waste gasification with CCUS", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Biomass-waste gasification with CCUS", "name": "Biomass-waste gasification with CCUS", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Thermal processes", "CCUS-enabled" ], "description": "Biomass or waste gasification is a thermochemical conversion process in which the feedstock is heated to high temperatures in the presence of a controlled amount of oxygen, air or steam under sub‑stoichiometric conditions that prevent complete combustion. This produces a synthesis gas containing H2, CO, CO2, CH4, light hydrocarbons and tars, with the composition determined by temperature, oxidant choice and catalysts. For hydrogen production, the synthesis gas is directed to a water gas shift reactor where steam reacts with CO over a catalyst to generate additional hydrogen and CO2. The shifted gas usually contains about 65–70% hydrogen by volume and is then purified, typically through pressure swing adsorption, to obtain hydrogen with a purity of about 99.9%. The process generates a concentrated CO2 stream as an outcome of gas conditioning, providing a suitable source for CO2 capture and storage and enabling negative emissions when the feedstock is sustainable biomass. \nBiomass has a low hydrogen‑to‑carbon ratio (below 1), resulting in lower hydrogen availability per unit of feedstock than methane. Hydrogen yields are typically about 100 g H2 per kg of biomass compared with roughly 300 g per kg of methane, requiring greater biomass input for a given hydrogen output. This constraint can reduce scalability where sustainable biomass is limited, but the route remains attractive when the primary objective is CO2 sequestration. ", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production", "CO2 capture", "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Biomass or waste gasification with CCUS can produce hydrogen while generating a concentrated CO2 stream that can be captured and permanently stored, enabling very low or potentially net-negative emissions where sustainably sourced biomass is used. This pathway could therefore contribute to a Net Zero Emissions scenario, particularly in regions with access to sustainable biomass or suitable waste streams and available CO2 transport and storage infrastructure. However, deployment remains constrained by feedstock availability, competition with alternative biomass uses that may deliver higher system value.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Biomass-waste gasification without CCUS", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Biomass-waste gasification without CCUS", "name": "Biomass-waste gasification without CCUS", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Thermal processes" ], "description": "Biomass or waste gasification is a thermochemical conversion process in which the feedstock is heated to high temperatures in the presence of a controlled amount of oxygen, air or steam under sub stoichiometric conditions that prevent complete combustion. This produces a synthesis gas containing H2, CO, CO2, CH4, light hydrocarbons and tars, with the composition determined by temperature, oxidant choice and catalysts. For hydrogen production, the synthesis gas is directed to a water gas shift reactor where steam reacts with CO over a catalyst to generate additional hydrogen and CO2. The shifted gas usually contains about 65–70% hydrogen by volume and is then purified, typically through pressure swing adsorption, to obtain hydrogen with high purity. The process generates a concentrated CO2 stream as an inherent outcome of gas conditioning. \nBiomass has a low hydrogen to carbon ratio (below 1), resulting in lower hydrogen availability per unit of feedstock than methane. Hydrogen yields are typically about 100 g H2 per kg of biomass compared with roughly 300 g per kg of methane, requiring greater biomass input for a given hydrogen output. This constraint can reduce scalability where sustainable biomass is limited, but the route remains attractive when the primary objective is CO2 sequestration. ", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production", "Biomass use" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Biomass or waste gasification can produce low-emissions hydrogen where sustainably sourced biomass is used. This pathway could therefore contribute to a Net Zero Emissions scenario, particularly in regions with access to sustainable biomass or suitable waste streams. However, deployment will remain constrained by feedstock availability, competition with alternative biomass uses that may deliver higher system value.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Biomass-waste pyrolysis", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Biomass-waste pyrolysis", "name": "Biomass-waste pyrolysis", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Thermal processes", "Pyrolysis" ], "description": "Biomass or waste pyrolysis is a thermochemical process in which the solid feedstock is heated at high temperatures in the absence of an oxidant. The process produces a range of co-products, typically 60–75 wt% pyrolysis oil (bio-oil), 15–25 wt% solid char, and 10–20 wt% non condensable gases. These yields depend on the feedstock characteristics and the specific pyrolysis mode applied, with slow, fast, and flash pyrolysis being the most established options. The resulting bio oil and gases can be catalytically reformed at 600–800°C to produce syngas, consisting of hydrogen, CO and CO2, which can then be conditioned using the water-gas-shift reaction to maximise hydrogen production. Hydrogen is subsequently purified using conventional separation processes.\nBecause pyrolysis unavoidably generates multiple co-products and requires several major processing stages (i.e. biomass pyrolysis, catalytic reforming, and gas clean up), the process requires larger biomass inputs to produce a fixed hydrogen output. However, it becomes an attractive option when the production and sequestration of biochar is a parallel objective, as biochar is a carbon rich material that can enhance soil quality and agricultural productivity. Key process limitations include the challenges of scaling up pyrolysis systems, optimising catalyst composition to reduce deactivation, improving catalyst stability, and ensuring effective catalyst regeneration.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production" ], "trl": [ null, null, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Biomass and waste pyrolysis pathways can produce hydrogen with low associated emissions if sustainably sourced biomass or suitable waste streams are used. In addition, part of the carbon contained in the feedstock can be retained in solid by-products such as biochar, which can be applied to soils to enhance soil quality while storing carbon. However, the overall contribution of this pathway to hydrogen supply in a Net Zero Emissions scenario is likely to remain limited due to constrained availability of sustainable biomass and competing uses in sectors where alternatives are more difficult to deploy, meaning that conversion to hydrogen may not represent the most effective use of these resources.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Catalytic decomposition (methane)", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Catalytic decomposition (methane)", "name": "Catalytic decomposition (methane)", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Thermal processes", "Pyrolysis" ], "description": "Methane pyrolysis decomposes methane into hydrogen and solid carbon without generating a CO2 process stream, as carbon remains in condensed form rather than being oxidised. In catalytic methane pyrolysis, methane is decomposed over metal catalysts, typically based on iron, nickel or cobalt, at temperatures of about 600–900 °C in the absence of oxidants. The catalyst provides an alternative reaction pathway with lower activation energy compared with non-catalytic thermal decomposition, reducing energy demand while improving methane conversion and hydrogen yield. Reactor performance depends on catalyst composition, structure and operating conditions, while many designs require high surface-area-to-volume ratios to ensure adequate heat transfer, which can constrain reactor scale.\nCommercial deployment is mainly limited by catalyst deactivation caused by carbon deposition, which requires regeneration or replacement, while carbon-based catalysts avoid regeneration but gradually lose activity. The relatively lower operating temperatures also influence the carbon product formed, enabling production of materials such as graphite or carbon nanotubes rather than carbon black, and many developers tailor catalyst systems to target higher-value carbon products. Improving catalyst durability and enabling reactor scale-up remain key challenges.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Methane pyrolysis produces hydrogen without generating a CO2 process stream, as carbon is recovered in solid form rather than as CO2, thereby avoiding the need for CO2 capture during hydrogen production; most projects also aim to valorise the resulting solid carbon, including materials such as graphite or graphene, which can provide additional revenue streams. The extent to which hydrogen produced via this pathway qualifies as low-emissions in a Net Zero Emissions scenario depends primarily on minimising upstream and midstream emissions associated with natural gas or biomethane supply and on the use of low-emissions energy sources to provide process heat. The technology may therefore be particularly relevant in regions with established natural gas supply chains but limited access to CO2 transport and storage infrastructure, and where utilisation of solid carbon by-products is being pursued.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Chemical looping (hydrogen production)", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Chemical looping (hydrogen production)", "name": "Chemical looping (hydrogen production)", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Thermal processes", "CCUS-enabled" ], "description": "Chemical looping is a process in which a metal‑oxide oxygen carrier transfers oxygen between separate reaction steps, enabling fossil fuels conversion without direct contact with air and producing CO2 in a nitrogen‑free stream that is inherently easier to capture. In hydrogen‑production applications, the oxygen carrier is reduced by the fuel and later re‑oxidised in a separate step. Within this general framework, chemical looping can be configured either to generate a hydrogen‑rich reformate (chemical looping reforming) or to release high‑purity hydrogen directly (chemical looping hydrogen). A range of metal oxides can serve as carriers, with iron‑based systems particularly attractive due to their cost, availability, and high‑temperature stability.\nChemical looping offers opportunities for hydrogen production by combining inherent CO2 separation with efficient heat integration, but challenges remain in scaling these systems. Reactor integration and solid‑handling requirements, especially in circulating configurations, add complexity, and long‑term oxygen‑carrier durability under high‑temperature redox cycling must be improved to ensure stable performance.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Chemical looping with CCUS can reduce the CO2 emissions associated with hydrogen production from fossil fuels. It could play an important role in net‑zero pathways if CO2 is permanently stored and upstream fuel‑supply emissions are minimised or eliminated. However, widespread deployment is expected only in the medium to long term due to its low technology readiness level.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Coal gasification - high capture rates", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Coal gasification - high capture rates", "name": "Coal gasification - high capture rates", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Thermal processes", "CCUS-enabled" ], "description": "Coal gasification is a mature technology that has been deployed at scale in China for many years, particularly for producing hydrogen used in ammonia fertiliser production, methanol and olefins. The process involves the partial oxidation of coal at high temperatures (around 900–1500 °C) and pressures up to about 40 bar. The resulting synthesis gas, containing hydrogen, CO, CO2, light hydrocarbons and various impurities, is cleaned and conditioned, with a water gas shift step used to increase the hydrogen fraction. Subsequent CO2 separation produces a high purity hydrogen stream. Syngas composition can be adjusted to suit the intended end product, including hydrogen, synthetic natural gas or liquid fuels. Key operating variables such as temperature, pressure and the steam to carbon ratio influence the resulting syngas composition.\nThe CO2 separated during hydrogen production can be captured and stored to reduce lifecycle emissions. Partial CO2 capture is already standard in ammonia–urea plants, where a share of the CO2 is used as a feedstock for urea synthesis. In addition, two demonstration coal to chemicals facilities in China are injecting CO2 underground for enhanced oil recovery, marking early steps towards incorporating CO2 storage into coal based gasification systems.\nPilot testing of sorbent‑based pre‑combustion CO2‑capture systems in China has achieved high capture rates, yet no demonstration‑scale or commercial coal‑gasification plants currently operate with capture rates above 90%.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production", "CO2 capture", "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Coal gasification with high CO2 capture rates can significantly reduce emissions compared with unabated coal-based hydrogen production, but residual emissions remain due to incomplete capture as well as upstream and midstream emissions associated with coal mining and transport. As a result, its long-term role in a Net Zero Emissions scenario is likely to be limited compared with other low-emissions hydrogen production routes. Nevertheless, the technology may retain relevance in the medium term, particularly where existing assets remain in operation and early retirement is unfeasible, allowing emissions reductions from current facilities while lower-emissions alternatives and infrastructure are developed.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Coal gasification - partial capture rates", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Coal gasification - partial capture rates", "name": "Coal gasification - partial capture rates", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Thermal processes", "CCUS-enabled" ], "description": "Coal gasification is a mature technology that has been deployed at scale in China for many years, particularly for producing hydrogen used in ammonia fertiliser production, methanol and olefins. The process involves the partial oxidation of coal at high temperatures (around 900–1500 °C) and pressures up to about 40 bar. The resulting synthesis gas, containing hydrogen, CO, CO2, light hydrocarbons and various impurities, is cleaned and conditioned, with a water‑gas shift step used to increase the hydrogen fraction. Subsequent CO2 separation produces a high‑purity hydrogen stream. Syngas composition can be adjusted to suit the intended end product, including hydrogen, synthetic natural gas or liquid fuels. Key operating variables such as temperature, pressure and the steam‑to‑carbon ratio influence the resulting syngas composition.\nThe CO2 separated during hydrogen production can be captured and stored to reduce lifecycle emissions. Partial CO2 capture is already standard in ammonia–urea plants, where a share of the CO2 is used as a feedstock for urea synthesis. In addition, two demonstration coal‑to‑chemicals facilities in China are injecting CO2 underground for enhanced oil recovery, marking early steps towards incorporating CO2 storage into coal‑based gasification systems.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production", "CO2 capture", "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "This technology is not able to reduce the carbon intensity of hydrogen production enough to play a relevant role longer-term in a net-zero emissions future. Yet it could play a role in the near term, significantly reducing emissions for existing facilities, before they retire, via retrofitting. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Electrified steam reforming", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Electrified steam reforming", "name": "Electrified steam reforming", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Thermal processes", "CCUS-enabled" ], "description": "Electrified steam methane reforming follows the same process configuration as conventional steam methane reforming, in which methane reacts with steam over a catalyst at high temperature to produce hydrogen and carbon oxides, followed by a water-gas shift reaction and hydrogen purification, typically via pressure swing adsorption. As in conventional SMR, CO2 is generated as a relatively concentrated stream in the shifted process gas; however, the conventional reformer furnace, which normally produces an additional dilute CO2 stream in the flue gas through fuel combustion to supply process heat, is replaced by electrically supplied high-temperature heat. As a result, only the concentrated process CO2 stream remains, avoiding the formation of a dilute flue gas stream and simplifying CO2 capture, which is already carried out in some facilities for uses such as urea production or enhanced oil recovery. When combined with CO2 capture and low-emissions electricity supply, electrified reforming can substantially reduce overall emissions from hydrogen production, although challenges remain related to providing reliable and uniform high-temperature heat, material durability and large-scale system integration.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Electrified steam methane reformers can significantly reduce CO2 emissions associated with hydrogen production by eliminating combustion emissions from the reformer furnace and enabling capture of the remaining concentrated process CO2 stream. They could therefore play a role in a Net Zero Emissions scenario, provided the captured CO2 is permanently stored, upstream and midstream emissions associated with natural gas supply are minimised, and low-emissions electricity is used to supply process heat. However, deployment could be expected primarily in the medium to long term, reflecting the technology’s current low level of maturity.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen recovery from waste streams", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Hydrogen recovery from waste streams", "name": "Hydrogen recovery from waste streams", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Other" ], "description": "Hydrogen can be recovered from purge or by-product gas streams, even when present at low concentrations, using separation technologies. This allows hydrogen that would otherwise be vented or combusted for heat to be recovered and reused, provided that recovery is cost-effective relative to venting or on-site consumption. Purge gases from ammonia and methanol production, as well as by-product gases from coke ovens, have been identified as suitable hydrogen-rich waste streams. Hydrogen separation from these streams can be achieved using pressure swing adsorption (PSA), cryogenic distillation or membrane-based technologies.\nPSA is a commercially mature technology for hydrogen purification, capable of removing impurities down to parts-per-million (ppm) levels and producing hydrogen at very high purities (above 99.999%). However, PSA systems can be capital and energy intensive.\nMembrane-based technologies are often better suited to hydrogen recovery from purge and by-product streams, as they offer simpler operation, lower energy consumption, lower capital requirements and cost effectiveness at relatively low gas volumes. Where ultra-high purity is not required (for example, hydrogen purity below 99.5%) and operating temperatures are moderate, polymeric membranes are generally the most suitable option on economic grounds. These membranes have been commercially deployed since the 1970s, initially for hydrogen recovery from ammonia purge gas streams and for adjusting H2\/CO ratios in synthesis gas. For applications requiring higher hydrogen selectivity and purity, dense metallic membranes offer the highest hydrogen selectivity among membrane technologies. Palladium-based membranes, which exploit palladium’s unique electronic properties, have been commercially available since the 1990s and can achieve hydrogen purities of 99.99%. Their wider deployment is constrained by high material costs and sensitivity to contaminants such as CO, CO2, H2O and H2S above certain temperature thresholds. Ongoing research focuses on novel palladium-based alloys and membrane configurations to improve resistance to contaminants and reduce costs, while ceramic and composite membranes designed for higher-temperature operation are also under development.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, 5, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Hydrogen recovery technologies are important because industrial surplus hydrogen is currently vented or combusted for energy, and recovering this hydrogen from purge or by-product streams can provide a more efficient use of an under-utilised resource, adding value while displacing fossil fuel use elsewhere in the energy system.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "In-situ hydrocarbon conversion", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > In-situ hydrocarbon conversion", "name": "In-situ hydrocarbon conversion", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Geologic hydrogen" ], "description": "Stimulated geologic hydrogen refers to hydrogen generated in the subsurface through deliberate anthropogenic interventions, in contrast to natural geologic hydrogen, which is produced through naturally occurring subsurface processes. In this pathway, hydrocarbons are converted directly within hydrocarbon-bearing formations to produce hydrogen, which is recovered to the surface, while CO2 is retained in situ or sequestered through reinjection. In situ hydrocarbon conversion may offer an alternative where conventional hydrocarbon production is technically challenging or uneconomic, such as in heavy or extra-heavy oil reservoirs, tight formations or depleted fields. The use of existing wells and subsurface infrastructure can lower capital intensity and shorten deployment timelines by enabling the repurposing of otherwise stranded assets. In situ hydrogen conversion pathways are typically grouped into thermochemical and biological approaches.\nThermochemical pathways include controlled partial oxidation, steam reforming and pyrolysis, often catalytically assisted. Concepts with relatively higher near-term maturity include in situ combustion of oil and tar sands, underground coal gasification, and steam-assisted gravity drainage-based of tar sands, all of which have been tested in subsurface environments. \nBiological pathways involve bio-hydrogenogenesis, using indigenous or augmented microbial communities to generate hydrogen in the subsurface by introducing hydrogen-producing microorganisms and\/or nutrients into hydrocarbon-bearing formations, or by adjusting environmental conditions such as pH to enhance microbial hydrogen generation. Several approaches have been tested in subsurface environments, including biological methanotrophic conversion of natural gas, microbial degradation of residual hydrocarbons in oil fields, and bioaugmentation with hydrogen-producing microorganisms.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Geologic hydrogen is being explored as an alternative to fossil-based hydrogen production, which would involve upstream and midstream emissions from fuel supply chains even when CO2 is abated, as well as to electrolytic hydrogen production or other routes that may entail high production costs. While several geologic hydrogen pathways have been tested in subsurface environments, they remain at an early stage of development, with significant uncertainties related to scalability, long-term production performance and economic viability. As a result, the role of geologic hydrogen remains uncertain and is likely to be limited in the near to medium term. Natural hydrogen extraction may involve lower energy inputs but faces uncertainty regarding the presence of hydrogen in economically viable accumulations and associated exploration costs, whereas stimulated geologic hydrogen could help address these uncertainties but would need to demonstrate net energy, emissions and economic advantages given the additional energy required for stimulation.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Mineralogical reactions", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Mineralogical reactions", "name": "Mineralogical reactions", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Geologic hydrogen" ], "description": "Stimulated geologic hydrogen refers to hydrogen generated in the subsurface by deliberately inducing or accelerating hydrogen-producing geological and geochemical reactions through anthropogenic interventions. Unlike natural geologic hydrogen, which is generated through naturally occurring subsurface processes, this approach seeks to recreate or enhance favourable conditions using engineered techniques. Rather than relying on the discovery of naturally accumulated hydrogen occurrences, which remain uncertain, stimulated approaches aim to improve predictability and reduce exploration risk by actively driving hydrogen generation. However, these approaches remain at low technology readiness levels, and significant uncertainties persist.\nOne group of approaches focuses on anthropogenic serpentinisation, which mirrors naturally occurring serpentinisation but seeks to increase hydrogen generation rates to potentially recoverable levels. Hydrogen is produced through redox reactions between water and iron-rich minerals, in which ferrous iron (Fe²⁺) is oxidised to ferric iron (Fe³⁺) and water is reduced to molecular hydrogen. Stimulation methods under investigation include the injection of water or reactive fluids into iron-rich rocks to promote serpentinisation reactions; thermal or hydraulic stimulation to increase permeability and expose fresh mineral surfaces, thereby increasing rock-water contact and enhancing reaction kinetics; and electrical reservoir stimulation, in which high-voltage electric currents are applied to generate localised heating and controlled fracturing to activate serpentinisation-related geochemical reactions.\nMineral carbonation-driven hydrogen production represents a distinct mineral-based pathway in ultrabasic rocks. In this configuration, hydrogen generation is coupled with mineral carbonation reactions, whereby injected fluids and CO2 react with minerals to form stable carbonate phases while hydrogen is produced as a co-product of associated redox reactions. This approach may offer dual benefits by combining hydrogen production with permanent CO2 sequestration.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Geologic hydrogen is being explored as an alternative to fossil-based hydrogen production, which would involve upstream and midstream emissions from fuel supply chains even when CO2 is abated, as well as to electrolytic hydrogen production or other routes that may entail high production costs. While several geologic hydrogen pathways have been tested in subsurface environments, they remain at an early stage of development, with significant uncertainties related to scalability, long-term production performance and economic viability. As a result, the role of geologic hydrogen remains uncertain and is likely to be limited in the near to medium term. Natural hydrogen extraction may involve lower energy inputs but faces uncertainty regarding the presence of hydrogen in economically viable accumulations and associated exploration costs, whereas stimulated geologic hydrogen could help address these uncertainties but would need to demonstrate net energy, emissions and economic advantages given the additional energy required for stimulation.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Natural hydrogen extraction", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Natural hydrogen extraction", "name": "Natural hydrogen extraction", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Geologic hydrogen" ], "description": "Natural geologic hydrogen refers to hydrogen that is generated and accumulates in the subsurface through naturally occurring geological and geochemical reactions. Natural hydrogen extraction involves the direct recovery of this hydrogen from underground reservoirs, without the need for synthetic conversion processes. The scientific community recognises three main subsurface generation mechanisms: serpentinisation, radiolysis and deep mantle degassing. Serpentinisation is currently considered the most significant source, producing hydrogen through redox reactions in which water interacts with iron-rich rocks under elevated temperatures (200-400 °C), leading to the oxidation of ferrous iron (Fe²⁺) to ferric iron (Fe³⁺) and the reduction of water to molecular hydrogen. Radiolysis generates hydrogen when radiation from the decay of naturally occurring radioactive elements (uranium, thorium and potassium) splits water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen, particularly in quartz–feldspar-rich continental rocks. Deep mantle degassing may also contribute, with hydrogen migrating upwards along fault systems from deeper crustal or mantle sources.\nExploration strategies focus on geological settings where hydrogen generation is plausible, and where migration pathways, reservoirs, and sealing formations could enable accumulation. The exploration process is broadly similar to that for hydrocarbons. It starts with the identification of the source rock, followed by the migration pathways, and then the reservoirs and traps. Prospective resources are therefore expected to be found where iron-rich lithologies or naturally radioactive rocks coincide with deep-seated faults, low-permeability seals and limited biological or mineralogical consumption of hydrogen. Currently, the only commercial production is at the Bourakébougou field in Mali, producing around 5 tonnes per year. Large-scale commercial development before 2030 remains uncertain due to the limited understanding of generation, migration, and accumulation in commercially viable quantities, as well as the lack of established exploration tools. Production costs are therefore highly uncertain and will depend on reservoir concentration, ease of extraction and gas processing requirements, including the composition of co-produced gases. In this regard, some projects are exploring the potential for co-producing helium.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production" ], "trl": [ null, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Geologic hydrogen is being explored as an alternative to fossil-based hydrogen production, which would involve upstream and midstream emissions from fuel supply chains even when CO2 is abated, as well as to electrolytic hydrogen production or other routes that may entail high production costs. While several geologic hydrogen pathways have been tested in subsurface environments, they remain at an early stage of development, with significant uncertainties related to scalability, long-term production performance and economic viability. As a result, the role of geologic hydrogen remains uncertain and is likely to be limited in the near to medium term. Natural hydrogen extraction may involve lower energy inputs but faces uncertainty regarding the presence of hydrogen in economically viable accumulations and associated exploration costs, whereas stimulated geologic hydrogen could help address these uncertainties but would need to demonstrate net energy, emissions and economic advantages given the additional energy required for stimulation.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Non-thermal decomposition (methane)", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Non-thermal decomposition (methane)", "name": "Non-thermal decomposition (methane)", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Thermal processes", "Pyrolysis" ], "description": "Non-thermal plasma pyrolysis, also referred to as cold plasma pyrolysis, decomposes methane into hydrogen and solid carbon using electrically generated plasma while maintaining low bulk gas temperatures, typically about 30–200 °C, without catalysts. In this approach, the gas remains relatively cold because ionisation rates are low, but energetic electrons generated in the plasma break methane molecules through electronic excitation rather than heat. Technologies such as gliding arc, dielectric barrier discharge and pulsed plasma systems have been proposed to enable methane decomposition under these conditions.\nBecause the process operates at low gas temperatures and near atmospheric pressure, equipment requirements can be simplified compared with high-temperature thermal systems. However, non-thermal plasma pyrolysis typically exhibits limited selectivity towards hydrogen, as formation of light hydrocarbons competes with the desired decomposition pathway. Concepts such as shockwave pyrolysis, in which high-pressure gas pulses generate compression waves that induce methane decomposition, have also been investigated. Improving hydrogen selectivity and overall energy efficiency remains a key development challenge.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Methane pyrolysis produces hydrogen without generating a CO2 process stream, as carbon is recovered in solid form rather than as CO2, thereby avoiding the need for CO2 capture during hydrogen production; most projects also aim to valorise the resulting solid carbon, including materials such as graphite or graphene, which can provide additional revenue streams. The extent to which hydrogen produced via this pathway qualifies as low-emissions in a Net Zero Emissions scenario depends primarily on minimising upstream and midstream emissions associated with natural gas or biomethane supply and on the use of low-emissions energy sources to provide process heat. The technology may therefore be particularly relevant in regions with established natural gas supply chains but limited access to CO2 transport and storage infrastructure, and where utilisation of solid carbon by-products is being pursued.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Nuclear thermochemical", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Nuclear thermochemical", "name": "Nuclear thermochemical", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Thermal processes", "Thermochemical water splitting" ], "description": "Water thermolysis can be achieved using high-temperature heat from nuclear reactors, but direct thermolysis requires temperatures above about 2 500 °C, well beyond reactor operating conditions. As a result, nuclear-driven systems rely on thermochemical water splitting cycles (TWSCs), in which water decomposition occurs through several chemical reactions in a closed loop, regenerating process chemicals while producing hydrogen and oxygen in separate steps and avoiding high-temperature gas separation. More than 300 thermochemical cycles have been proposed, typically operating between about 500 °C and up to around 2 000 °C, since research started in the 1960s, initially driven by the objective of producing hydrogen using nuclear heat. In practice, nuclear applications generally focus on cycles involving three or more reaction steps, as these operate at temperatures below about 900 °C compatible with advanced reactor designs, whereas higher-temperature two-step cycles are more suited to solar-driven systems. However, these multistep cycles often involve highly corrosive or hazardous reactants and\/or products. In some examples of this technology, the cycles also include electrochemical reactions and are called hybrid cycles.\nNuclear thermochemical hydrogen production could enable large-scale low-emissions hydrogen production without relying primarily on electricity, and similar approaches could also use suitable high-temperature industrial waste heat streams. However, significant challenges remain, including development of materials capable of withstanding corrosive chemical environments and repeated thermal cycling, and efficient integration of thermochemical plants with nuclear facilities or industrial waste heat sources.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Other alternative technologies for low-emissions hydrogen production from fossil sources with CCUS and electrolysis are currently more developed and cost-competitive. However, this technology has the potential to deliver zero-carbon hydrogen while increasing the flexibility of nuclear plants through an additional output different from power generation.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Partial oxidation with CCUS", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Partial oxidation with CCUS", "name": "Partial oxidation with CCUS", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Thermal processes", "CCUS-enabled" ], "description": "Partial oxidation of methane (POx) is a process in which methane is partially oxidised with oxygen, typically supplied by a cryogenic air separation unit. The water gas shift reaction is subsequently applied to increase hydrogen yield and maximise the quantity of CO2 available for capture in the process stream. The partial oxidation reaction is exothermic, eliminating the need for external heat input and therefore avoiding the production of a diluted CO2 stream. Heat released from the reaction is used to generate steam for downstream use and for general pre heating duties.\nCompared with steam methane reforming and autothermal reforming, POx enables CO2 capture at higher pressures and potentially larger scales, and operates without a catalyst. It requires little or no feed gas pretreatment and produces high pressure steam from waste heat rather than consuming it.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production", "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Partial oxidation of methane with CCUS avoids the diluted CO2 stream associated with fired reformer furnaces by providing process heat through partial combustion within the reactor, resulting in a single, relatively concentrated CO2 stream that is simpler to capture than flue-gas CO2. If high capture rates are achieved, this can significantly reduce CO2 emissions from hydrogen production compared with unabated pathways. The technology could therefore play a role in a Net Zero Emissions scenario, provided captured CO2 is permanently stored and upstream and midstream emissions associated with natural gas supply are minimised, particularly where existing gas infrastructure and CO2 transport and storage networks are available.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Photon-based direct solar water splitting", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Photon-based direct solar water splitting", "name": "Photon-based direct solar water splitting", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Other" ], "description": "In photon-based direct solar water splitting, sunlight is used directly to split water into hydrogen and oxygen without first converting solar energy into electricity. These technologies rely on light-absorbing materials that facilitate water-splitting reactions directly under solar irradiation, operating as an integrated process. The two main types of photon-based direct solar water-splitting technology are photocatalytic approaches and photoelectrochemical (PEC) cells. \nThe core of photocatalytic water splitting is the photocatalyst, a semiconductor material capable of absorbing sunlight and generating charge carriers. When the photocatalyst absorbs light with energy at or above its bandgap, electrons are excited from the valence band to the conduction band, creating a vacancy in the valence band known as a hole and forming electron-hole pairs. These charge carriers separate and migrate to the semiconductor surface, where the holes react with water molecules, causing them to dissociate into oxygen and hydrogen ions (H⁺) in an oxidation reaction, while the electrons reduce hydrogen ions (H⁺, i.e. protons) to form hydrogen molecules (H2) in a reduction reaction. Common photocatalyst materials include tungsten oxide (WO3), bismuth vanadate (BiVO4) and modified titanium dioxide (TiO2). Many photocatalysts primarily absorb ultraviolet light, which represents only a small fraction of the solar spectrum, limiting overall efficiency. Noble metals such as platinum, gold and silver can enhance catalytic activity but are costly, and research therefore focuses on developing low-cost semiconductor materials and nanostructured catalysts with improved light absorption.\nPhotoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting is a photon-based direct solar hydrogen production process in which photoactive semiconductor electrodes absorb sunlight and drive the paired redox reactions that split water within an electrochemical cell. In a photoanode-based PEC system, the photoanode absorbs light and generates holes that drive water oxidation, producing oxygen and hydrogen ions (H⁺), while electrons are transported through an external circuit to the cathode, where hydrogen ions are reduced to form hydrogen molecules (H2). In a photocathode-based PEC system, the photocathode absorbs light and directly drives hydrogen formation, while water oxidation takes place at a separate anode. Tandem PEC systems, which combine a photoanode and a photocathode, improve light utilisation and can reduce the external energy input required for overall water splitting. BiVO4 has been the most widely used metal-oxide-based photoanode material. The choice of semiconductor materials for photocathodes is more limited, reflecting the requirement for stable p-type semiconductors; Cu2O is the most reported metal-oxide-based photocathode, although performance and long-term stability remain constrained. Research in this area is ongoing.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Photon-based direct solar water-splitting technologies are relevant for net zero as they enable hydrogen production directly from sunlight and water, without intermediate electricity generation, potentially reducing system complexity and energy losses. In the long term, higher solar-to-hydrogen conversion efficiencies could lower overall costs and land requirements compared with sequential solar electricity generation and electrolysis. However, these technologies remain at early research stages, and their contribution in the short to medium term is expected to be limited.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyser", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyser", "name": "Polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyser", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Electrolysis", "Electrolyser design" ], "description": "Water electrolysis is an electrochemical process that uses electricity to split water (H2O) into its basic components: hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolysers use a proton-conducting solid polymer electrolyte to form the electrolysis cell and separate the H2 and O2 evolution reactions at the cathode and anode, respectively.\nPEM electrolysers represent one of the two commercially mature electrolysis technologies, together with alkaline electrolysers. Compared with the latter, PEM electrolysers require more expensive materials, including noble-metal catalysts (platinum and iridium), titanium bipolar plates, and specialised polymer membrane materials, resulting in higher capital costs. Nevertheless, PEM electrolysers offer a greater cost-reduction potential and several operational advantages. They can operate efficiently under dynamic conditions and at partial loads, with rapid response times and low degradation rates associated with load variations. These characteristics make them particularly well suited for integration with intermittent renewable energy sources and unlock the possibility to provide grid services, such as frequency regulation. In addition, PEM electrolysers can operate at higher pressures (typically 30–80 bar), reducing downstream compression requirements, and can achieve higher current and power densities, leading to more compact system designs. The lifetime of PEM electrolysers is currently slightly lower than that of alkaline systems, but technological developments are expected to close this gap. Extensive research is currently underway to improve durability and develop acid-stable electrolysers to mitigate reliance on noble metals, thus reducing costs.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production", "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 8, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Although polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolysers are currently less widely deployed than alkaline electrolysers, several electrolysis projects are based on this technology. As a result of their superior performance under dynamic conditions, this technology may play an important role in enabling the integration of electrolytic hydrogen production with intermittent renewable energy sources.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Seawater electrolysis", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Seawater electrolysis", "name": "Seawater electrolysis", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Electrolysis", "Novel feedstock" ], "description": "Water electrolysis is an electrochemical process that uses electricity to split water (H2O) into its basic components: hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). Seawater electrolysis is being investigated to address the issue of freshwater availability, potentially reducing hydrogen production costs and enabling more versatile applications. However, the use of seawater as electrolyte is still at the early stages of development due to several technical challenges. Seawater has a highly complex and heterogeneous composition, with pH levels ranging from acidic to alkaline depending on location and season. It usually has high concentrations of impurities, including dissolved inorganic salts, organic molecules, living microorganisms, and dissolved gases, which create significant challenges related to corrosion, occurrence of side reactions, and degradation of membrane and electrodes. In addition, the presence of ions leads to lower conductivity and, therefore, reduced conversion efficiency.\nTo address these issues, indirect seawater electrolysis (ISE), which includes a preliminary desalination stage, is currently favoured over direct seawater electrolysis (DSE). In this process, seawater is first desalinated, often via reverse osmosis, and then fed to a conventional electrolyser. Compared with DSE, ISE relies on two mature technologies. Although the additional desalination step increases costs and efficiency losses, its impact on the overall cost of hydrogen production is generally limited. As a result, most projects under development today focus on indirect seawater electrolysis. Nevertheless, research in direct seawater electrolysis remains very active, driven by the potential to reduce system complexity and footprint, which could facilitate integration with offshore renewable energy installations, and reflected in the first pilot projects that have begun operating in recent years.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production", "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 4, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Direct seawater electrolysis is at a very early stage of development and currently presents lower efficiencies and higher costs than other electrolysis technologies, including indirect seawater electrolysis, which is likely to be the preferred option in the near term. Over the longer term, it could play a relevant role for hydrogen generation in water-stressed areas with high renewable energy potential or in offshore applications, potentially offering lower system complexity and smaller footprint and land use than indirect seawater electrolysis.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Solar thermochemical", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Solar thermochemical", "name": "Solar thermochemical", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Thermal processes", "Thermochemical water splitting" ], "description": "Water thermolysis can be understood as analogous to water electrolysis, but using heat rather than electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. However, direct thermolysis requires temperatures above about 2 500 °C, making it impractical. Thermochemical water splitting cycles (TWSCs) overcome this limitation by dividing the reaction into two or more chemical steps in which intermediate compounds are regenerated in a closed loop, so that only water is consumed and hydrogen and oxygen are produced in separate steps, avoiding the need for high-temperature gas separation. More than 300 thermochemical cycles have been proposed since research started in the 1960s, typically operating between about 500 °C and up to around 2 000 °C. Thermochemical cycles generally involve two to five or six reaction steps: the fewer the number of steps, the higher the required temperature, and vice versa. Solar-driven systems mainly focus on two-step cycles based on metal oxides, typically operating at temperatures above about 1 400 °C, in which concentrated solar radiation supplies the high temperatures required for thermal reduction, followed by water splitting at lower temperature to regenerate the oxide and produce hydrogen. Among the most studied examples is the cerium oxide (CeO2) cycle, which has been tested at pilot scale using solar concentrators. In some examples of this technology, the cycles also include electrochemical reactions and are called hybrid cycles.\nSolar thermochemical systems typically use heliostat fields to concentrate sunlight onto reactors, often located on tower systems, enabling the high temperatures needed for two-step cycles. The approach does not rely on catalysts or scarce materials, but important challenges remain, including material degradation at very high temperatures, reactor and reactants durability under repeated thermal cycling, and the need to reduce the cost of concentrating solar systems.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Other alternative technologies for low-emissions hydrogen production from fossil sources with CCUS and electrolysis are currently more developed and cost-competitive. However, this technology has the potential to deliver zero-carbon hydrogen while increasing the flexibility of solar concentration plants through an additional output different from power generation.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Solid oxide electrolyser cell", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Solid oxide electrolyser cell", "name": "Solid oxide electrolyser cell", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Electrolysis", "Electrolyser design" ], "description": "Water electrolysis is an electrochemical process that uses electricity to split water (H2O) into its basic components: hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). In a solid oxide electrolyser cell (SOEC), this process takes place at high operating temperatures, typically between 600 °C and 900 °C. SOECs operate with steam instead of liquid water and use a ceramic solid oxide electrolyte. Steam is supplied at the cathode (fuel electrode), where it is electrochemically reduced to hydrogen (H2) and oxygen ions (O2-). These ions migrate through the ceramic electrolyte towards the anode (air electrode), where they combine to form molecular oxygen (O2). \nCompared with low-temperature electrolysis, the high operating temperature enables favourable thermodynamics, faster reaction kinetics, and lower ohmic losses. This makes SOECs the most efficient hydrogen production technology, although it limits their operational flexibility. While SOECs can load follow very well and have rapid response, they have slow ramp rates from cold start due to the need to reach high temperatures and avoid thermal shocks for the ceramic electrolyte. As a result, they need to operate in a “hot idle” mode.\nAs SOECs require a source of heat to produce steam, they are especially attractive for the co-location and integration with other industrial or chemical processes, where excess heat can be recovered to further improve the system efficiency. Possible heat sources include waste heat from synthetic hydrocarbon synthesis, industrial waste heat, solar thermal, nuclear power, or geothermal energy. SOECs can also operate in reverse mode as fuel cells in so-called reversible solid oxide cells. If combined with hydrogen storage, this unlocks the possibility to provide balancing service or seasonal storage of renewable electricity. In addition, SOECs can be used for the co-electrolysis of steam and CO2, producing a syngas mixture that can be subsequently converted into a synthetic fuel. Lower-temperature SOECs operating at temperatures between 500 °C and 600 °C are also being explored, offering the advantage of using metal-supported cells, with potentially lower costs and higher robustness.\nAlthough SOECs rely on ceramic materials and use fewer rare materials compared to PEM electrolysers, their capital costs are currently higher than those of low-temperature electrolysers. SOEC systems have been tested in large demonstration plants, and different multi-MW scale projects have now started operation. Ongoing research is focused on improving system durability while maintaining high performance.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Solid oxide electrolysers are currently less mature and more expensive than alkaline and PEM electrolysers, but they offer strong cost-reduction potential and can achieve higher efficiencies, particularly where suitable heat sources are available to supply part of the energy required for electrolysis. Their ability to operate reversibly as fuel cells also provides flexibility for future integrated energy systems. Their relevance in a Net Zero Emissions scenario is therefore strongest in industrial or energy systems where low-emissions heat can be integrated, while their efficiency advantage is reduced in applications where such heat sources are not available and must be provided electrically.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Sorption enhanced steam reforming", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Sorption enhanced steam reforming", "name": "Sorption enhanced steam reforming", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Thermal processes", "CCUS-enabled" ], "description": "Sorption Enhanced Steam Reforming is a pre-combustion CO2 capture process in which natural gas is reacted with steam in the presence of a CO2 sorbent and reforming catalyst. The CO2 is absorbed continuously over the absorbent, and thus removed from the reaction, which allows for shifting the reaction equilibrium towards the products, increasing conversions. It allows the production of hydrogen and a concentrated CO2 stream suitable for CCUS. In this process, the selection of suitable high-temperature CO2 sorbent is a key challenge in producing high purity hydrogen.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production", "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Sorption enhanced steam reforming can reduce CO2 emissions associated with hydrogen production by producing a concentrated CO2 stream within the reforming process, facilitating CO2 capture while simultaneously increasing hydrogen yield through in-situ CO2 removal. The technology could therefore play a role in a Net Zero Emissions scenario, provided the captured CO2 is permanently stored and upstream and midstream emissions associated with natural gas supply are minimised. However, deployment could be expected primarily in the medium to long term given the technology’s current low level of maturity.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Steam reforming - high capture rates", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Steam reforming - high capture rates", "name": "Steam reforming - high capture rates", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Thermal processes", "CCUS-enabled" ], "description": "Steam methane reforming is currently the most common technology for hydrogen production, widely used in refining and chemical industries. In this process, methane reacts with steam over a catalyst at high temperatures (700–1000 °C) and pressures of 3–25 bar to produce hydrogen and carbon oxides, after which the gas passes through a water-gas shift reactor to convert carbon monoxide into additional hydrogen and CO2. Hydrogen is then purified, typically by pressure swing adsorption (PSA). The process generates two CO2 streams: a concentrated stream in the shifted process gas and a more dilute stream in the reformer furnace flue gas, produced by fuel combustion to supply heat to the reactor. Capture of CO2 from the concentrated process stream is already implemented in some facilities, for example where CO2 is used for urea production in ammonia plants or for enhanced oil recovery, whereas capturing CO2 from the dilute furnace flue gas stream remains more technically and economically challenging. As a result, while partial CO2 capture is commercially deployed, capture from both streams to achieve high overall capture rates has not yet been demonstrated at commercial scale.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production", "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "CO2 capture from the concentrated process stream in steam methane reforming is already applied in some facilities, for example where CO2 is used for urea production or enhanced oil recovery. Extending capture to achieve higher overall capture rates could significantly reduce emissions compared with unabated hydrogen production. However, residual emissions would remain due to incomplete capture as well as upstream and midstream emissions associated with natural gas production and transport. In a Net Zero Emissions scenario, such configurations may therefore play a role particularly in the short to medium term, especially for existing SMR facilities, provided efforts focus on maximising capture rates and reducing methane and CO2 emissions along the natural gas supply chain while lower-emissions hydrogen production pathways are scaled up.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Steam reforming - partial capture", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Steam reforming - partial capture", "name": "Steam reforming - partial capture", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Thermal processes", "CCUS-enabled" ], "description": "Steam methane reforming is currently the most common technology for hydrogen production, widely used in refining and chemical industries. In this process, methane reacts with steam over a catalyst at high temperatures (700–1000 °C) and pressures of 3–25 bar to produce hydrogen and carbon oxides, after which the gas passes through a water-gas shift reactor to convert carbon monoxide into additional hydrogen and CO2. Hydrogen is then purified, typically by pressure swing adsorption (PSA). The process generates two CO2 streams: a concentrated stream in the shifted process gas and a more dilute stream in the reformer furnace flue gas, produced by fuel combustion to supply heat to the reactor. Capture of CO2 from the concentrated process stream is already implemented in some facilities, for example where CO2 is used for urea production in ammonia plants or for enhanced oil recovery, whereas capturing CO2 from the dilute furnace flue gas stream remains more technically and economically challenging. As a result, commercially deployed configurations typically capture only the concentrated process stream, leading to overall CO2 capture rates of around 60%, while capture from both streams to achieve higher overall capture rates has not yet been demonstrated at commercial scale.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production", "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "CO2 capture from the concentrated process stream in steam methane reforming is already applied in some facilities, for example where CO2 is used for urea production or enhanced oil recovery, as capturing concentrated CO2 streams is technically simpler and less costly than capturing CO2 from dilute streams. However, partial capture typically reduces emissions only by around half and therefore does not provide emissions levels consistent with a Net Zero Emissions scenario in the long term. Nevertheless, in the short to medium term, retrofitting existing SMR facilities with partial capture can provide meaningful emissions reductions while higher-capture technologies and alternative low-emissions hydrogen production technologies are scaled up.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Thermal non-catalytic decomposition (methane)", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Thermal non-catalytic decomposition (methane)", "name": "Thermal non-catalytic decomposition (methane)", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Thermal processes", "Pyrolysis" ], "description": "Thermal, or non-catalytic, methane pyrolysis decomposes methane into hydrogen and solid carbon at temperatures typically above about 1 200 °C without the use of catalysts, enabling hydrogen production while retaining carbon in solid rather than gaseous form and avoiding formation of a CO2 process stream. At temperatures below about 1 000 °C methane cracking becomes slow and requires long residence times, whereas high temperatures and low pressures favour rapid decomposition and high methane conversion. Under these conditions, intermediate hydrocarbons including olefins and aromatic compounds may form and subsequently decompose into hydrogen and solid carbon as residence time increases.\nDifferent reactor concepts mainly differ in how heat is supplied to achieve the required temperatures. Conventional designs use fuel combustion to supply heat, while some concepts recycle part of the hydrogen product to provide lower-emissions heat. Emerging configurations include microwave heating, molten metal or molten salt reactors and pulsed combustion systems. Microwave systems provide volumetric heating and enable compact modular designs, molten media systems decompose methane in a high-temperature liquid environment that facilitates heat transfer and carbon separation, and pulsed combustion systems generate intense local heating and mixing that promote rapid methane cracking. Common challenges include reactor scale-up, materials durability, optimisation of energy input and handling of solid carbon by-products.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Methane pyrolysis produces hydrogen without generating a CO2 process stream, as carbon is recovered in solid form rather than as CO2, thereby avoiding the need for CO2 capture during hydrogen production; most projects also aim to valorise the resulting solid carbon, including materials such as graphite or graphene, which can provide additional revenue streams. The extent to which hydrogen produced via this pathway qualifies as low-emissions in a Net Zero Emissions scenario depends primarily on minimising upstream and midstream emissions associated with natural gas or biomethane supply and on the use of low-emissions energy sources to provide process heat. The technology may therefore be particularly relevant in regions with established natural gas supply chains but limited access to CO2 transport and storage infrastructure, and where utilisation of solid carbon by-products is being pursued.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Thermal plasma decomposition (methane)", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Thermal plasma decomposition (methane)", "name": "Thermal plasma decomposition (methane)", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Thermal processes", "Pyrolysis" ], "description": "Thermal plasma pyrolysis is currently the most mature plasma-based route for methane pyrolysis, using electrically generated plasma, typically produced by plasma arc torches, to decompose methane at temperatures of about 1 000–2 000 °C without the use of catalysts. In thermal plasmas, ionisation levels are sufficiently high for electrical energy to be converted into heat through Joule heating, resulting in extremely high reaction temperatures and rapid methane decomposition. Methane conversion increases strongly with temperature, typically remaining below 50% near 1 000 °C but exceeding 90% at around 2 000 °C. Carbon is recovered in condensed form rather than oxidised, allowing hydrogen to be produced without generating a CO2 process stream, although intermediate hydrocarbons such as ethane (C2H6), ethylene (C2H4) and acetylene (C2H2) may also form alongside carbon black. Thermal plasma processes were initially developed to produce acetylene or ethylene, with hydrogen generated as a by-product, while current development focuses on maximising hydrogen yield and improving process efficiency.\nA key challenge is the high electricity demand required to sustain plasma discharge at elevated temperatures, which strongly influences operating costs and overall process efficiency. Development efforts therefore focus on improving energy efficiency and reactor performance while maintaining high methane conversion, making access to low-cost, low-emissions electricity an important factor for deployment.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production" ], "trl": [ 6, 7, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Methane pyrolysis produces hydrogen without generating a CO2 process stream, as carbon is recovered in solid form rather than as CO2, thereby avoiding the need for CO2 capture during hydrogen production; most projects also aim to valorise the resulting solid carbon, including materials such as graphite or graphene, which can provide additional revenue streams. The extent to which hydrogen produced via this pathway qualifies as low-emissions in a Net Zero Emissions scenario depends primarily on minimising upstream and midstream emissions associated with natural gas or biomethane supply and on the use of low-emissions energy sources to provide process heat. The technology may therefore be particularly relevant in regions with established natural gas supply chains but limited access to CO2 transport and storage infrastructure, and where utilisation of solid carbon by-products is being pursued.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Waste water electrolysis", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Waste water electrolysis", "name": "Waste water electrolysis", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Production", "Electrolysis", "Novel feedstock" ], "description": "Water electrolysis is an electrochemical process that uses electricity to split water (H2O) into its basic components: hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). The use of wastewater instead of purified water as feedstock is being investigated to address the issue of freshwater availability in a circular economy perspective, combining hydrogen production with wastewater treatment. Wastewater electrolysis can be classified according to the physicochemical properties of the feedstock before entering the electrolysis cell. One option is to pretreat wastewater before feeding it to a conventional electrolyser, for example through forward osmosis. Alternatively, untreated wastewater can be fed directly to a microbial electrolysis cell. In this process, organic matter is oxidised at the anode via electrochemically active exoelectrogenic bacteria (exoelectrogens), i.e., microorganisms capable of transferring electrons extracellularly, while hydrogen is produced at the cathode, under an externally applied electric field. Both approaches are still at an early stage of development and have so far been demonstrated mainly at laboratory scale. Current research is focused on scaling up these technologies and validating their performance under real wastewater conditions, where feedstock properties can vary significantly.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen production" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Wastewater electrolysis is at a very early stage of development and currently presents lower efficiencies and higher costs than other electrolysis technologies. In the long term, it could play a relevant role for hydrogen generation in water-stressed areas, limiting the consumption of freshwater and supporting a more circular economy.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Black liquor gasification and valorisation", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Black liquor gasification and valorisation", "name": "Black liquor gasification and valorisation", "sector": [ "Industry", "Pulp and paper", "Recycling (waste product conversion to chemicals and bioenergy)" ], "description": "The process uses water under supercritical conditions to crack carbon bonds within end-of-life plastic, thus breaking down polymers into shorter chain hydrocarbons.", "supplyChain": [ "Biofuels use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Black liquor gasification has reasonable potential to produce carbon neutral fuels. However, projects to date have faced considerable challenges, and gasification costs may limit the uptake of this technology.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Boilers fitted with CO2 capture", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Boilers fitted with CO2 capture", "name": "Boilers fitted with CO2 capture", "sector": [ "Industry", "Pulp and paper", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "CCS can potentially be applied in the pulp and paper sector to capture emissions from the boilers used for producing steam, along with emissions streams from other ancillary units. As significant amounts of bioenergy are used by the pulp and paper industry, there is a high capacity for BECCS to be performed in this industry, allowing for offsets against other CO2 emissions.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture" ], "trl": [ null, null, 5, 5, 5, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The paper sector has one of the highest share of bioenergy consumption among industries. So using BECCS would be an opportunity to lower direct emissions, and offset some others. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Compression refining", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Compression refining", "name": "Compression refining", "sector": [ "Industry", "Pulp and paper", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "Fibre refining is a key operation to create sufficient fibre surface area for bonding, thus increasing the strength of paper. However, refining also damages the fibres, thereby reducing dewatering efficiency and increasing the water retention value of paper. By reducing the shear forces through compression refining the fibre damage is reduced and energy efficiency is improved.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, 4, 4, 4, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Good energy efficiency gains potential. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Deep eutectic solvent (pulping)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Deep eutectic solvent (pulping)", "name": "Deep eutectic solvent (pulping)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Pulp and paper", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "A deep eutectic solvent is a liquid mixture of two components that has an unusually low freezing point and have high lignin solubility, which could make them suitable as novel pulping solvents. Their use could have significantly lower energy needs for pulping compared to traditional chemical pulping processes, as they enable pulp production at low temperatures and atmospheric pressure. They function by dissolving wood into lignin, hemicellulose and cellulose.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The technology could reduce pulping emissions by 80%. While still at a low TRL, if development proceeds they could provide a good option to reduce emissions and enable the industry to run on an even higher share of biomass (largely paper-industry byproducts).", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Electric air heating", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Electric air heating", "name": "Electric air heating", "sector": [ "Industry", "Pulp and paper", "Shift in energy sources and electrification" ], "description": "Traditionally, pulp is dried using superheated steam generated from fossil fuel sources. However, using resistive heating to warm air means that renewable electricity can be used, thus reducing associated emissions. Additionally, the significant power demand can be managed by power controllers to minimise load disruption on electricity grid.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, "A", "A", null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "If electricity is sourced from renewable sources, this could greatly reduce the CO2 emissions of paper production. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Electric boiler", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Electric boiler", "name": "Electric boiler", "sector": [ "Industry", "Pulp and paper", "Shift in energy sources and electrification" ], "description": "Producing steam for drying with electricity instead of using fossil fuels. Electric boilers applicable to multiple industries have reached commercialisation, and are being considered by many pulp and paper mills.", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ null, null, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, "A", "A", "A", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "If electricity is sourced from renewable sources, this could greatly reduce the CO2 emissions of paper production. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Heat pumps in the pulp and papper industry", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Heat pumps in the pulp and papper industry", "name": "Heat pumps in the pulp and papper industry", "sector": [ "Industry", "Pulp and paper", "Shift in energy sources and electrification" ], "description": "Sustainable application of high temperature heat pumps in the paper industry requires both dedicated heat pumps and adaptation of the paper-making process: lower air content in the drying hood (to increase dewpoint and thus heat pump source) and lower starting pressures for steam (+ subsequent steam compression steps for the higher steam pressures needed in the different drying sections).", "supplyChain": [ "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ null, null, 6, 6, 7, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "If electricity is sourced from renewable sources, this could greatly reduce the CO2 emissions of paper production. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Innovative mechanical dewatering technologies", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Innovative mechanical dewatering technologies", "name": "Innovative mechanical dewatering technologies", "sector": [ "Industry", "Pulp and paper", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "Removing 1% more water in the press section (mechanical dewatering) results in at least 3% reduction of required drying energy. Innovative mechanical dewatering technologies may include ultrasound-assisted dewatering, vacuum controlled pressing, impulse dewatering, displacement pressing, steel belts and air-assisted forming.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, 5, 5, 5, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Dewatering can bring significant energy efficiency gains. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Lignin extraction-organic solvent", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Lignin extraction-organic solvent", "name": "Lignin extraction-organic solvent", "sector": [ "Industry", "Pulp and paper", "Recycling (waste product conversion to chemicals and bioenergy)" ], "description": "Isolating lignin from wood pulp could enable use of lignin for new industrial products, such as chemicals, or for use as a biofuel in boilers or lime kilns. Solvent-based pulping is one of the methods under exploration.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The technology can provide additional sources of biomass for use in other applications, which could be valuable given that there is an upper limit on the potential for sustainable biomass. However, this technology does not directly reduce pulp and paper industry emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Lignin extraction-precipitation and acidification", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Lignin extraction-precipitation and acidification", "name": "Lignin extraction-precipitation and acidification", "sector": [ "Industry", "Pulp and paper", "Recycling (waste product conversion to chemicals and bioenergy)" ], "description": "Isolating lignin from wood pulp could enable use of lignin for new industrial products, such as chemicals, or for use as a biofuel in boilers or lime kilns. Precipitation and acidification is one of the methods under exploration.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "The technology can provide additional sources of biomass for use in other applications, which could be valuable given that there is an upper limit on the potential for sustainable biomass. However, this technology does not directly reduce pulp and paper industry emissions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Mild repulping technologies (pulping)", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Mild repulping technologies (pulping)", "name": "Mild repulping technologies (pulping)", "sector": [ "Industry", "Pulp and paper", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "During repulping, dry pulp or paper for recycling is dispersed in water to isolate the individual fibres. Milder technologies may lead to energy savings in the repulping process and reduce fibre damage thus reducing water retention value and drying energy. Moreover, it may decrease fibre losses.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, 4, 4, 4, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Good energy efficiency gains potential. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Paper making without water", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Paper making without water", "name": "Paper making without water", "sector": [ "Industry", "Pulp and paper", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "70% of the energy need for paper-making is the use of heat for drying. When water could be eliminated there is no need for drying. The challenge is to obtain inter-fibre bonding and also dry defibration of pulp or paper for recycling without damaging the fibre. This is challenging, firstly, as paper owes its strength to hydrogen bonds that are formed during the removal of water, and secondly, as during repulping of dry pulp or paper for recycling the hydrogen bonds are normally mildly broken upon the addition of water.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Huge abatement potential.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Pyrolysis of by-product streams", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Pyrolysis of by-product streams", "name": "Pyrolysis of by-product streams", "sector": [ "Industry", "Pulp and paper", "Recycling (waste product conversion to chemicals and bioenergy)" ], "description": "In pyrolysis, biomass is heated in the absence of oxygen and decomposes into bio-oil and biochar. The side streams of pulp and paper processing can be subject to pyrolysis depending on the various levels of water content.", "supplyChain": [ "Biofuels use" ], "trl": [ null, null, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "A good portion of the bio-waste produced in the paper sector is self-consumed. If combined with electrification and energy efficiency gains, such method could allow to export excess bioenergy for diverse applications. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Reduction of water in size press", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Reduction of water in size press", "name": "Reduction of water in size press", "sector": [ "Industry", "Pulp and paper", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "Currently, sized paper products are dried before being rewetted in the size process, thus requiring a second drying step. Decreasing water content in the sizing agent (while obtaining low viscosity) would significantly reduce energy consumption from the second drying phase.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Energy efficiency gains potential. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Supercritical CO2 drying", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Supercritical CO2 drying", "name": "Supercritical CO2 drying", "sector": [ "Industry", "Pulp and paper", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "Liquid-like characteristics of supercritical CO2 allow for substitution of steam-heated cylinders with supercritical CO2 in the \"extraction drying\" process.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Energy efficiency gains potential, but the technology is not as advanced as other alternatives. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Superheated steam drying", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Superheated steam drying", "name": "Superheated steam drying", "sector": [ "Industry", "Pulp and paper", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "Drying in only steam (air-free) environment enables total recovery of thermal energy, to be used in subsequent processes. The challenge is to combine the steam-condensation system with wet paper\/water vapour system, requiring advanced steam cleaning technologies and solutions to prevent steam leakage from the system", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Energy efficiency gains are possible with this technology.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Water removal without evaporation", "breadcrumb": "Industry > Water removal without evaporation", "name": "Water removal without evaporation", "sector": [ "Industry", "Pulp and paper", "Other production techniques" ], "description": "The main mechanism for water removal during drying is evaporation. Avoiding this phase change would lead to significant energy savings. Using electric forces like electro-osmosis could lead to up to 90% saving of drying energy.", "supplyChain": [], "trl": [ null, null, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "High energy efficiency gains potential. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Battery electric train", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Battery electric train", "name": "Battery electric train", "sector": [ "Transport", "Rail" ], "description": "On non-electrified tracks, ''pure'' battery electric trains (no ICE on-board) will be a solution for zero pollutant emission and low CO2 operations (with CO2 emissions depending on the carbon intensity of electricity generation). \nDue to their limited range, this technology will likely be dedicated to suburban and intercity (i.e. short route) applications.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (vehicles)" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 8, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Offers a solution for short-route lines on non-electrified tracks that are not equipped with low-CO2-fuel infrastructure.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Gas hybrid train (internal combustion engine and battery)", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Gas hybrid train (internal combustion engine and battery)", "name": "Gas hybrid train (internal combustion engine and battery)", "sector": [ "Transport", "Rail" ], "description": "When catenary lines are available, energy is drawn from them and then stored in high capacity batteries. In other cases, the power can be provided either by the batteries or by gas engine(s). Batteries also store recovered energy when the train is braking, thus reducing overall energy consumption. For this technology to deliver net emissions reductions, the gas needs to be produced from renewable sources.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (vehicles)" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This technology would be a solution for rail transport in the case of cost-effective, abundant production of synthetic methane (from electrolysis from low-carbon electricity with a carbon-source) in the future.\nThis technology has a market limited to trains running on partially electrified or non-electrified tracks, with a decreasing share over time. Today non-electrified rail lines make up, for example, almost all interregional lines in North and South America, 67% of conventional rail lines in Africa, 15% of conventional rail lines in India, and 38% of Europe's conventional rail lines.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle", "name": "Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle", "sector": [ "Transport", "Rail" ], "description": "A hydrogen fuel cell system generates electric power to run an electric motor, providing tractive energy. This technology represents an alternative to diesel for trains running on non-electrified tracks.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "This technology would be a solution for rail transport in the case of cost-effective, abundant production of low-carbon hydrogen (from electrolysis from low-carbon electricity) in the future.\nThis technology has a market limited to trains running on partially or not-electrified tracks, with a decreasing share over time. Today non-electrified rail lines make up, for example, almost all interregional lines in North and South America, 67% of conventional rail lines in Africa, 15% of conventional rail lines in India, and 38% of Europe's conventional rail lines.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hyperloop", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Hyperloop", "name": "Hyperloop", "sector": [ "Transport", "Rail" ], "description": "The hyperloop concept was advanced in an open source paper by Elon Musk, Tesla co-founder. It has been described as a completely alternative transport mode to aircraft, ships, road or rail, and is based on three key components: carriages levitating magnetically or by air; linear motor propulsion, initially proposed as compressed air propulsion; and a vacuum-based enclosure to dramatically reduce air friction. A number of companies since then have developed alternative technology designs based on the fundamental principles of the hyperloop, for instance using electromagnetic propulsion. Hyperloop variants remain to be tested at any significant scale.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (vehicles)", "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "As an alternative to high-speed rail and short-haul aviation it holds promise, but the fundamental hurdles of the technology and the early TRL mean this technology is of a low priority relative to other abatement options in the NZE.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Magnetic levitation", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Magnetic levitation", "name": "Magnetic levitation", "sector": [ "Transport", "Rail" ], "description": "Magnetic levitation trains or maglevs are floating vehicles that are supported either by electromagnetic attraction or repulsion. They were initially conceptualised in the early 1900s, and have been in commercial use in some form since 1984. Maglev trains remove friction between the wheels and the rails, allowing for much higher speeds, reducing operating costs from fewer moving parts and rolling friction. In turn this means the main driver impeding forward movement becomes air resistance, driving technology development. They can also improve safety and prevent derailment. Further, they allow for wider trains to be built, increasing convenience; and they reduce the need for civil engineering projects as they can operate on higher inclines (of up to 10%) than traditional trains. \nTwo key technology areas are currently deployed: (i) electromagnetic suspension (EMS), which harnesses the attractive forces between magnets on the train's side and underside and on the guideway; and (ii) electromagnetic suspension systems, where magnets, generally placed in the undercarriage of the train, repel the train from the guideway, which allows for higher levitation. These are generally based on superconducting and supercooled technology systems. The need to build dedicated infrastructure from scratch, bypassing conventional infrastructure, and high capital expenditures remain obstacles to further deployment.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (vehicles)", "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "While it will continue to have niche applications, there are a number of competitive alternatives for large-scale implementation.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Rail-to-grid battery energy storage system", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Rail-to-grid battery energy storage system", "name": "Rail-to-grid battery energy storage system", "sector": [ "Transport", "Rail" ], "description": "Development of an innovative Railway to Grid (R+G) management system by project E-LOBSTER (Electric Losses Balancing through integrated Storage and power Electronics towards increased synergy between Railways and electricity distribution networks) funded by the EU. Aims to provide a platform for real-time energy flow management between rail, grid and energy storage system as well as electric vehicles (EVs) and charging stations. The R+G management system operates by taking into account the mutual benefit of transport and distribution networks to reduce distribution losses and energy recovery through train regenerative braking. In addition to R+G, two other technologies are supporting E_LOBSTER: Smart Soft Open Point (sSOP) and Battery Energy Storage System (BESS). sSOP are power electronics placed at open points on energy distribution networks to provide power control. Distribution losses and regenerative breaking energy will then be transferred to the local station's PV roof power generation system, and can from there be delivered to the grid, providing services such as local EV management or other ancillary services (e.g. voltage regulation, or storage capacity required, or power for train traction).", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The development of an interconnected system between different applications such as electric vehicles, rail and grid is important for reaching net zero. As such, the technological aspects being studied by E-Lobster, such as efficiency improvement, train regenerative braking, energy recovery and distribution to grid and auxiliaries are highly relevant. If these innovations are scaled up, the impacts for reaching net zero could be significant.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "2-3w (charging)", "breadcrumb": "Transport > 2-3w (charging)", "name": "2-3w (charging)", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "EV charging equipment", "Battery swapping" ], "description": "Battery swapping is an alternative to conventional electric vehicle (EV) charging, designed to reduce refuelling time. At a battery swapping station, an EV user can automatically exchange a depleted battery for a fully charged one, typically in a matter of minutes. This approach can improve vehicle utilisation and support the deployment of EVs across multiple segments, from passenger cars to two- and three-wheelers and heavy-duty vehicles.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Battery swapping for e-bikes and electric 2\/3 wheelersis very attractive for many reasons, primarily refuelling time, just a few minutes. Furthermore, battery swapping can help to alleviate that the issue of strains on distribution and transmission grids, which is relevant in countries with large numbers of electric motorcycles, such as India.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "AI assisted battery material screening", "breadcrumb": "Transport > AI assisted battery material screening", "name": "AI assisted battery material screening", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle battery (electrical storage)", "Other batteries technologies" ], "description": "AI-assisted battery-materials screening integrates machine learning (ML), high-throughput computation, and autonomous experimentation to accelerate the identification and optimisation of electrode, electrolyte, and separator materials for electrochemical energy storage. It combines large materials databases (from density-functional-theory and experimental data), data-driven property prediction, and closed-loop robotic testing guided by active learning.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "All solid-state battery", "breadcrumb": "Transport > All solid-state battery", "name": "All solid-state battery", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle battery (electrical storage)", "Other batteries technologies" ], "description": "Solid-state batteries (SSBs) are a promising evolution of state-of-the-art lithium-ion batteries, where the liquid (flammable) electrolyte is substituted with a solid electrolyte. They are currently attracting major interest and investments. The advantages of using solid electrolytes are that it can potentially allow for higher energy density anodes (such as lithium metal or silicon), leading to higher energy density, and that they are not flammable, leading to safety benefits. Both of these benefits, however, still need to be demonstrated at the battery pack level, in which challenges persist, such as the need for high stack pressure and “cell breathing” (battery cells changing their volume during cycling due to volume expansion of the lithium or silicon anode). Lastly, it should be noted that “solid-state batteries” are not perfectly defined yet, and can range from \"semi solid-state batteries\", for example using polymer electrolyte that is heated during operation and gel-based electrolyte, almost-SSBs that embed a small volume of liquid electrolytes, and all-SSBs that uses only solid electrolytes. Besides the electrolyte and anode, SSBs typically use the same cathode materials as lithium-ion batteries.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 4, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Solid-state batteries could unlock higher energy density and allow greater penetration of transport electrification in general, and of medium- and heavy-duty trucks in particular.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Almost solid-state battery", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Almost solid-state battery", "name": "Almost solid-state battery", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle battery (electrical storage)", "Other batteries technologies" ], "description": "Almost solid-state batteries (SSBs) are a promising evolution of state-of-the-art lithium-ion batteries, where the liquid (flammable) electrolyte is mostly substituted with a solid electrolyte, but some liquid electrolyte is still used to fill the electroddes' porosity, typically that of the cathode. They are currently attracting major interest and investments. The advantages of using solid electrolytes are that it can potentially allow for higher energy density anodes (such as lithium metal or silicon), leading to higher energy density, and that they are not flammable, leading to safety benefits. Both of these benefits, however, still need to be demonstrated at the battery pack level, in which challenges persist, such as the need for high stack pressure and “cell breathing” (battery cells changing their volume during cycling due to volume expansion of the lithium or silicon anode). Lastly, it should be noted that “solid-state batteries” are not perfectly defined yet, and can range from \"semi solid-state batteries\", for example using polymer electrolyte that is heated during operation and gel-based electrolyte, almost-SSBs that embed a small volume of liquid electrolytes, and all-SSBs that uses only solid electrolytes. Besides the electrolyte and anode, SSBs typically use the same cathode materials as lithium-ion batteries.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 4, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Solid-state batteries could unlock higher energy density and allow greater penetration of transport electrification in general, and of medium- and heavy-duty trucks in particular.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Automated and connected vehicles (level 4+)", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Automated and connected vehicles (level 4+)", "name": "Automated and connected vehicles (level 4+)", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle (EV)" ], "description": "Automated and connected vehicles leverage advanced sensing, communication, and computing technologies to enable driving functions with minimal or no human intervention. These vehicles can achieve higher energy efficiency than human-driven counterparts through strategies such as eco-driving, optimized routing, and platooning, which improve traffic flow. They are also more likely to adopt electrification, further lowering emissions.\nWhen combined with shared and pooled mobility models, automated vehicles can deliver substantial reductions in energy use per passenger-kilometre. However, widespread deployment requires continued progress in software (artificial intelligence, machine learning for perception and decision-making) and hardware (sensors, high-speed communications, and onboard computing). Addressing challenges related to cybersecurity, interoperability, and infrastructure readiness will be critical for scaling these technologies.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (vehicles)", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "If these vehicles are shared, automated and connected (and electric), they may help to reduce vkm and increase vehicle efficiency, primarily through pooled\/shared rides and vehicle right-sizing. However, if these technologies are deployed only in cars, low cost of mobility may lead to rebound, and\/or adverse effects for public transit.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Batteries using hybrid chemistries", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Batteries using hybrid chemistries", "name": "Batteries using hybrid chemistries", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle battery (electrical storage)", "Other batteries technologies" ], "description": "Hybrid battery packs can enable combining the advantages of different chemistries to increase the flexibility of the EV battery pack. For example, combining LFP and NMC batteries in the same pack enable to obtain longer ranges than LFP battery packs while maintaining prouction cost lower than pure NMC packs. Another example is the combination of LFP and sodium-ion in the same pack, enabling low production cost while being able to leverage on sodium-ion to compensate for lower performance in cold climates of LFP batteries. More complext designs can also consider the use of NMC of LFP batteries that are used routinely, and lithium metal batteries - which offers high energy density at the cost of low cycle ife - that are used only when particularly long ranges are required, unlocking ultra-long ranges without compromising the overall battery pack lifetime.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Aelectrification of road transport will require batteries with properties tuned for specific applications, and hybrid batteries can enable greater performance flexibility.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Battery electric light commercial vehicle", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Battery electric light commercial vehicle", "name": "Battery electric light commercial vehicle", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle (EV)" ], "description": "Light commercial electric vehicles use batteries (today principally Li-ion batteries) arranged in a battery pack. The battery pack is combined with inverters and an electric motor to convert electrical energy provided by the batteries into mechanical energy.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (vehicles)" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Electrification of light-duty road transport vehicles, together with increasing penetration of renewables and zero-carbon electricity generation, is the most promising technology opportunity for decarbonising light-duty transport.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Battery electric passenger car", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Battery electric passenger car", "name": "Battery electric passenger car", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle (EV)" ], "description": "Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) use rechargeable batteries—today almost exclusively lithium-ion—as their primary energy source. These batteries are composed of individual cells, which are grouped into modules and then assembled into a battery pack. In some designs, cells are integrated directly into the pack without intermediate modules to improve energy density and reduce weight.\nThe battery pack supplies electricity to an electric motor through power electronics, including inverters, which convert direct current (DC) from the battery into alternating current (AC) for the motor. The motor then converts electrical energy into mechanical energy to drive the wheels.\nBEVs are significantly more energy-efficient than internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. On average, around 70% of the energy stored in the battery is delivered to the wheels, compared with 20–40% for ICE vehicles. This higher efficiency translates into lower energy consumption per kilometre.\nDriving range depends on battery capacity, vehicle efficiency, and driving conditions. Current BEVs typically offer ranges between 200 and 600 km per charge.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (vehicles)" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Electrification of light-duty road transport vehicles, together with increasing penetration of renewables and zero-carbon electricity generation, is the most promising technology opportunity for decarbonising light-duty transport.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Battery electric truck", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Battery electric truck", "name": "Battery electric truck", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle (EV)" ], "description": "Electric trucks use battery systems—today almost exclusively based on lithium-ion technology—to power electric motors that drive the vehicle. The batteries are integrated into a pack together with power electronics such as inverters, which convert the stored electrical energy into mechanical energy for propulsion.\nBattery electric trucks are emerging rapidly across medium- and heavy-duty vehicle segments, supported by improvements in battery energy density, cost reductions, and the expansion of charging infrastructure. Some commercially available models now offer driving ranges exceeding 500 km per charge, suitable for a growing share of regional and long-haul applications.\nHeavy-duty trucks, which require large energy storage capacity and fast refuelling to maintain operational flexibility, face particular challenges. Solutions under development include high-power (megawatt-scale) charging systems, battery swapping, and the use of next-generation chemistries such as solid-state batteries - currently at the prototype stage. From a total cost of ownership perspective, heavy duty battery electrc trucks with a 500 km daily route are already cheaper than their diesel equivalent in China. A similar target is projected to be reached in Europe by 2030.\nMedium-duty trucks, used primarily in urban or regional logistics, have lower energy and range requirements and are therefore closer to cost and performance parity with internal combustion engine vehicles.\nThe continued deployment of electric trucks will depend on advances in charging infrastructure, battery technology, grid integration, and policy support to accelerate total-cost-of-ownership competitiveness and emissions reduction across freight transport.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (vehicles)" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, "A", "A", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Electrification of freight road transport vehicles, together with increasing penetration of renewables and zero-carbon electricity generation, is the most promising technology opportunity for decarbonising heavy-duty transport.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Battery electric urban transit bus", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Battery electric urban transit bus", "name": "Battery electric urban transit bus", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle (EV)" ], "description": "Electric buses use batteries (today almost exclusively Li-ion batteries) arranged in a battery pack. The battery pack is combined with inverters and an electric motor to convert electrical energy provided by the batteries into mechanical energy. Long haul transit buses might require either devoted infrastructure (e.g. battery swapping or adequate charging infrastructure) or high-energy density battery chemistries (e.g. solid-state batteries, currently at the prototype stage) to be competitive, and deployment of these solutions is still limited. Urban buses have significantly lower requirements thanks to recurrent stops in predefined locations.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (vehicles)" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Electrification of buses, together with increasing penetration of renewables and zero-carbon electricity generation, is one of the most promising technology opportunity for decarbonising public transport.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Cell-to-chassis battery technology", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Cell-to-chassis battery technology", "name": "Cell-to-chassis battery technology", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle (EV)" ], "description": "Cell-to-Chassis (CTC) technology integrates the battery cell with the chassis and then integrates the motor, electronic control, and vehicle high voltage such as DC\/DC, OBC, etc, and an intelligent power domain controller optimises power distribution and reduces energy consumption. It could lead to a significant increase of energy density by removing some components of the standard battery packs.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (vehicles)" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Cell-to-pack battery technology", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Cell-to-pack battery technology", "name": "Cell-to-pack battery technology", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle (EV)" ], "description": "Cell-to-Pack (CTP) refers to a battery architecture that eliminates traditional modules within a pack. Instead of assembling multiple modules—each containing cells, thermal management components, and electrical connections—the CTP approach integrates all battery cells directly into a single, large structural unit. This design reduces the number of components, centralizes battery management and cooling systems, and improves volumetric efficiency. As an intermediate step between conventional pack designs and cell-to-chassis configurations, CTP enables higher energy density and cost savings through simplified assembly and reduced material use.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (vehicles)" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Compressed biogas", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Compressed biogas", "name": "Compressed biogas", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Advanced combustion engines and powetrains" ], "description": "This technology can be adopted in road vehicles (typically heavy duty) powered by an internal combustion engine fuelled by biomethane. The biomethane is stored in high pressure tanks (20-25 MPa). Technical challenges that apply to this technology mostly relate to methane slip (leakage) in the engine, which occurs either at the intake manifold level or in the combustion chamber due to incomplete combustion. Indirect injection engines have higher slip (5% unburnt methane in the exhaust gas) than direct high pressure injection engines (reference: Advanced Motor Fuels Technology Collaboration Programme Annex 51). For this technology to deliver net emissions reductions, the methane would need to be produced from renewable sources (e.g. biomethane or synthetic methane) and burned in direct injection high pressure gas engines, as use of fossil methane in current engine technologies has no CO2 emissions benefit relative to diesel powertrains.\nExhaust gas after-treatment catalysts should also be improved to increase the conversion rates of unburnt methane, especially at low temperatures (e.g. during engine warm-up, or when the engine is running at low loads).", "supplyChain": [ "Bio-based fuels", "Biofuels use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "The market for this technology is expected to remain niche because of the limited availability of renewable biomethane. Promising application opportunities are municipal fleets supplied by biomethane from municipal or agricultural waste.\nIn the case of the cost-competitive, abundant production of synthetic methane (from electrolysis from low-carbon electricity with a carbon-source) in the future and in countries where gas grids already exist, this technology could be applied on a wider scale.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Conductive electric road systems", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Conductive electric road systems", "name": "Conductive electric road systems", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "EV charging equipment", "Dynamic charging or electric road system" ], "description": "Electric Road Systems (ERS) are infrastructure networks that allow electric vehicles (EVs) to charge while in motion, using energy supplied through the road itself. ERS can take two main forms: conductive, using power rails or rails embedded in lanes, and inductive, using electromagnetic coils. By enabling dynamic charging, ERS reduce the need for large onboard batteries, extend driving range, and increase operational flexibility, particularly for heavy-duty and long-haul transport.\nConductive charging (ERS) delivers electrical energy to EVs in motion through physical contact with rails or power conductors embedded in the roadway or along the roadside. Vehicles collect energy via a mounted contact device, allowing continuous charging during travel. This method provides high energy transfer efficiency and can significantly reduce battery size requirements, but requires substantial infrastructure investment, precise vehicle alignment, and rigorous safety measures.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Dynamic charging can complement or serve as a substitute to traditional electric vehicle charging (e.g. by enabling road vehicles to run on electric with smaller batteries). Electric Road Systems could accelerate adoption, particularly for heavy-duty and intensive usage and\/or long-distance operations like intercity buses (coaches), and regional and long-haul trucking. For other vehicle types and operations, it is of less critical importance than some of the other charging strategies.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ethanol-fuelled diesel engine", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Ethanol-fuelled diesel engine", "name": "Ethanol-fuelled diesel engine", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Advanced combustion engines and powetrains" ], "description": "Specifically applied to heavy duty tracking that can use bioethanol, ED95 engines can be fuelled by 95% ethanol and 5% additives (including ignition improvers). They are adapted diesel engines with high compression ratios, which are required to ignite the fuel. A dedicated injection system is also needed, to compensate for the lower energy density of ethanol.", "supplyChain": [ "Methanol and ethanol", "Biofuels use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Native spark ignition engines with high compression ratios could attain better results in terms of efficiency and pollutant emissions, and present an alternative to compression ignition (diesel) engines. Ethanol is currently the cheapest biofuel available and is the biofuel that is produced in the highest volumes, globally. Its use in diesel engines does not require major changes to truck production lines.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Fast and ultra-fast charging", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Fast and ultra-fast charging", "name": "Fast and ultra-fast charging", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "EV charging equipment" ], "description": "Most commercially available direct current (DC) fast charging stations currently enable power levels ranging from 250-350 kW. Fast charging technology of 350 kW up to 1 MW is a key driver for faster electric vehicle (EV) deployment, to increase the convenience of inter-city travel and reduce range anxiety. In particular, fast charging hubs are required for electric road freight and larger EV passenger models. A number of innovations are needed to go beyond high capacity thresholds, including battery and ultracapacitor combinations and integration of high capacity charging equipment within passenger EV and truck frames. Charging stations must provide high power output with minimal impact on the grid, which also will require further integration efforts including application of battery storage, capacitors or smart management systems. Finally, battery chemistries and designs will need to be developed that can be rapidly charged by ultrafast charging systems without risking accelerated degradation (e.g. via dendrite formation). Innovations are also needed on materials that also achieve ultrahigh discharge rates, comparable to those of supercapacitors.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Long-distance road travel is a particular hurdle for light- and heavy-duty electric vehicle adoption, despite the fact that inter-city passenger transport demand from light duty vehicles comprises a small share of total passenger travel. Deploying ultra-fast charging technology that can make trips over long distances possible with refuelling times comparable to those of internal combustion engines could greatly accelerate adoption and reduce emissions from intercity travel.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Fast charging", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Fast charging", "name": "Fast charging", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "EV charging equipment" ], "description": "Fast charging equipment is necessary to recharge the batteries of electric ships. Chargers can be constituted by a plug, typically with automated connection, or by a wireless device.\nBattery-electric ferries are mainly recharged on each docking.\nDue to the high power needed (several MW to tens of MW), an active cooling system will typically be used for the cable and connector (on the port side and on the vessel side). Available technical solutions include water cooling, air cooling, other fluid cooling or super conductive cables.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Necessary to recharge electric ships, which due to the low energy density and range will likely find application only in short-distance routes.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Flex-fuel and hybrid flex-fuel vehicle", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Flex-fuel and hybrid flex-fuel vehicle", "name": "Flex-fuel and hybrid flex-fuel vehicle", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Advanced combustion engines and powetrains" ], "description": "A flexible-fuel vehicle (FFV) or dual-fuel vehicle (referred to as a flex-fuel vehicle) has an internal combustion engine that is designed to run on more than one fuel. Both fuels are stored in the same tank and a fuel composition sensor allows the engine to adjust its fuel injection and spark timing to the fuel. Most flex-fuel vehicles run either on gasoline and ethanol or gasoline and methanol. When running on bioethanol or fuels such as synthetic methanol or synthetic liquid fuels that are based on hydrogen from renewable electricity, lifecycle emissions can potentially be low.", "supplyChain": [ "Methanol and ethanol", "Biofuels use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "High energy density lithium-ion batteries (>400 wh\/kg)", "breadcrumb": "Transport > High energy density lithium-ion batteries (>400 wh\/kg)", "name": "High energy density lithium-ion batteries (>400 wh\/kg)", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle battery (electrical storage)", "Lithium based batteries" ], "description": "High energy density (>400 Wh\/kg) lithium-ion batteries are typically based on either lithium metal or silicon anodes. If technical challenges such as lithium dendrites and volume expansion are solved or safely managed, they could enable faster electrification of applications requiring longer driving ranges, such as heavy-duty road transport.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "High energy density (>400 Wh\/kg) lithium-ion batteries are typically based on either lithium metal or silicon anodes. If technical challenges such as lithium dendrites and volume expansion are solved or safely managed, they could enable faster electrification of applications requiring longer driving ranges, such as long-haul heavy-duty road transport.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "High flow rate (>120 g\/s)", "breadcrumb": "Transport > High flow rate (>120 g\/s)", "name": "High flow rate (>120 g\/s)", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Hydrogen use in road transport", "Refueling and infrastructure" ], "description": "To fuel heavy hydrogen trucks in times similar to diesel truck refueling, the flow rate of hydrogen from the dispenser and into the vehicle needs to be faster than it is currently at stations designed for cars and buses. This requires new components to be desgined and new fueling protocols to be developed.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen distribution" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "In long-haul heavy-duty trucking, fuel cell trucks may become cost competitive with battery electric trucks and offer advantages in terms of fuelling times if high flow rate refueling stations are developed and deployed.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen fuel cell light commercial vehicle", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Hydrogen fuel cell light commercial vehicle", "name": "Hydrogen fuel cell light commercial vehicle", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Hydrogen use in road transport", "Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)" ], "description": "A hydrogen fuel cell system generates electric power from hydrogen. Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) have much smaller batteries than battery electric vehicles (at least by a factor of 10), as the energy is stored in the hydrogen. By exploiting the higher gravimetric energy density of hydrogen, FCEVs can offer a higher range than BEVs. However their continuing deployment faces multiple technical and economic challenges, including: safety of hydrogen handling (refuelling, residual leakage), on-board hydrogen storage (see the dedicated entry below) and the high cost of the fuel cell stack (the electrochemical reaction inside the stack requires a proton exchange membrane (PEM) coated with a platinum-based catalyst, a costly material) and system. Costs of the fuel cell stack and system are expected to decline significantly with economies of scale.\nFor FCEVs to be competitive with other powertrain technologies, hydrogen must be delivered to hydrogen refuelling stations using technologies that lead to zero or very low lifecycle emissions, at prices that bring per-kilometre costs into the same range as conventional ICEs, or of battery electric vehicles powered by grid electricity. This will require further cost reductions in technologies for low- and zero-carbon hydrogen production technologies (e.g. SMR with CCS, renewable electricity generation such as wind and solar coupled to electrolysers), as well as in hydrogen transmission and distribution networks and in hydrogen refuelling stations (HRS).", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen fuel cell passenger car", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Hydrogen fuel cell passenger car", "name": "Hydrogen fuel cell passenger car", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Hydrogen use in road transport", "Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)" ], "description": "See PEM fuel cell.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen fuel cell truck", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Hydrogen fuel cell truck", "name": "Hydrogen fuel cell truck", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Hydrogen use in road transport", "Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)" ], "description": "See PEM fuel cell.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "In long-haul heavy-duty trucking, fuel cell trucks may become cost-competitive with battery electric trucks and offer advantages in terms of fuelling times if high flow rate refueling stations are developed and deployed.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen fuel cell urban transit bus", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Hydrogen fuel cell urban transit bus", "name": "Hydrogen fuel cell urban transit bus", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Hydrogen use in road transport", "Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)" ], "description": "See PEM fuel cell.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen onboard storage tank (road vehicles)", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Hydrogen onboard storage tank (road vehicles)", "name": "Hydrogen onboard storage tank (road vehicles)", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Hydrogen use in road transport", "Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)" ], "description": "Hydrogen tanks are required to store hydrogen on board vehicles, either in gaseous or liquid form. Due to its low volumetric energy density, hydrogen requires very high pressure storage (between 35 and 70 Mpa) and\/or at very low temperature (around 20°K for liquid storage). Key challenges related to hydrogen tanks include safety (as H2 under pressure poses a fire risk, especially in case of leakage), durability, certification, standardisation, and optimization of system gravimetric and volumetric energy density. Vehicle integration is another challenge, for example in developping alternatives to the conventional cylindrical tank design. To address safety and integration issues, the industry is moving towards standardisation and modularity, exemplified by hydrogen buses that can be equipped with as many as ten individual cylindrical tanks.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen distribution", "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "In case fuel cell electric vehicles emerge as a strategic complementary solution to battery electric vehicles, further improvements in the design and mass production of hydrogen tanks will be key to ensuring safety and high vehicle ranges at an acceptable cost.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen-fuelled light commercial vehicle", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Hydrogen-fuelled light commercial vehicle", "name": "Hydrogen-fuelled light commercial vehicle", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Hydrogen use in road transport", "Hydrogen-fuelled vehicules" ], "description": "Burning hydrogen directly in an internal combustion engine offers an alternative use of hydrogen in transport, one that does not rely on fuel cells. Although less energy efficient than fuel cells today (35-45% peak efficiency for hydrogen engines vs. 50-60% for fuel cells), the hydrogen engine does not require critical minerals like platinum and could represent a cost-effective solution. Unlike fuel cells, hydrogen internal combustion engines can run on low-quality grade hydrogen, which allows for a broader range of hydrogen production pathways. However, several technical challenges remain, including safety, engine efficiency and power density, and control of exhaust nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) and soot emissions generated by lubricant combustion near the cylinder walls. Research and development (at TRL 6) is currently underway to tackle these challenges.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The hydrogen engine does not require rare materials like platinum. \nIt could be a particularly well-adapted solution in extreme cold-weather applications in which fuel cells may encounter operational challenges and where heat loss from the engine would be useful for heating up the cabin. Moreover, internal combustion engines are less sensitive to hydrogen quality than fuel cells are.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen-fuelled passenger car", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Hydrogen-fuelled passenger car", "name": "Hydrogen-fuelled passenger car", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Hydrogen use in road transport", "Hydrogen-fuelled vehicules" ], "description": "Burning hydrogen directly in an internal combustion engine offers an alternative use of hydrogen in transport, one that does not rely on fuel cells. Although less energy efficient than fuel cells today (35-45% peak efficiency for hydrogen engines vs. 50-60% for fuel cells), the hydrogen engine does not require critical minerals like platinum and could represent a cost-effective solution. Unlike fuel cells, hydrogen internal combustion engines can run on low-quality grade hydrogen, which allows for a broader range of hydrogen production pathways. However, several technical challenges remain, including safety, engine efficiency and power density, and control of exhaust nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) and soot emissions generated by lubricant combustion near the cylinder walls. Research and development (at TRL 6) is currently underway to tackle these challenges.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The hydrogen engine does not require rare materials like platinum. \nIt could be a particularly well-adapted solution in extreme cold-weather applications in which fuel cells may encounter operational challenges and where heat loss from the engine would be useful for heating up the cabin. Moreover, internal combustion engines are less sensitive to hydrogen quality than fuel cells are.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen-fuelled truck", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Hydrogen-fuelled truck", "name": "Hydrogen-fuelled truck", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Hydrogen use in road transport", "Hydrogen-fuelled vehicules" ], "description": "Burning hydrogen directly in an internal combustion engine offers an alternative use of hydrogen in transport, one that does not rely on fuel cells. Although less energy efficient than fuel cells today (35-45% peak efficiency for hydrogen engines vs. 50-60% for fuel cells), the hydrogen engine does not require critical minerals like platinum and could represent a cost-effective solution. Unlike fuel cells, hydrogen internal combustion engines can run on low-quality grade hydrogen, which allows for a broader range of hydrogen production pathways. However, several technical challenges remain, including safety, engine efficiency and power density, and control of exhaust nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) and soot emissions generated by lubricant combustion near the cylinder walls. Research and development (at TRL 6) is currently underway to tackle these challenges.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 7, 7, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The hydrogen engine does not require rare materials like platinum. \nIt could be a particularly well-adapted solution in extreme cold-weather applications in which fuel cells may encounter operational challenges and where heat loss from the engine would be useful for heating up the cabin. Moreover, internal combustion engines are less sensitive to hydrogen quality than fuel cells are.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen-fuelled urban transit bus", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Hydrogen-fuelled urban transit bus", "name": "Hydrogen-fuelled urban transit bus", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Hydrogen use in road transport", "Hydrogen-fuelled vehicules" ], "description": "Burning hydrogen directly in an internal combustion engine offers an alternative use of hydrogen in transport, one that does not rely on fuel cells. Although less energy efficient than fuel cells today (35-45% peak efficiency for hydrogen engines vs. 50-60% for fuel cells), the hydrogen engine does not require critical minerals like platinum and could represent a cost-effective solution. Unlike fuel cells, hydrogen internal combustion engines can run on low-quality grade hydrogen, which allows for a broader range of hydrogen production pathways. However, several technical challenges remain, including safety, engine efficiency and power density, and control of exhaust nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) and soot emissions generated by lubricant combustion near the cylinder walls. Research and development (at TRL 6) is currently underway to tackle these challenges.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The hydrogen engine does not require rare materials like platinum. \nIt could be a particularly well-adapted solution in extreme cold-weather applications in which fuel cells may encounter operational challenges and where heat loss from the engine would be useful for heating up the cabin. Moreover, internal combustion engines are less sensitive to hydrogen quality than fuel cells are.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Inductive (charging)", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Inductive (charging)", "name": "Inductive (charging)", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "EV charging equipment", "Dynamic charging or electric road system" ], "description": "Inductive charging enables wireless energy transfer via electromagnetic fields between coils embedded in road infrastructure and receivers in vehicles. While the concept dates back to the early 20th century, its application to electric vehicles (EVs) remains at an early stage of deployment.\nStatic inductive charging, typically installed in parking spaces, offers a user-friendly and safe alternative to plug-in systems, supporting broader EV adoption. Dynamic inductive charging, a form of Electric Road System (ERS), allows vehicles to charge while in motion via coils embedded beneath traffic lanes. This can reduce battery size requirements, extend driving range, and improve operational flexibility, particularly for heavy-duty and long-haul freight.\nDespite its potential, inductive charging faces challenges including lower energy transfer efficiency, higher infrastructure costs (estimated at over USD 1 million per lane-km for ERS), and greater material and construction demands compared to conductive systems.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Dynamic charging can complement or serve as a substitute to traditional electric vehicle charging (e.g. by enabling road vehicles to run on electric with smaller batteries). Electric Road Systems could accelerate adoption, particularly for heavy-duty and intensive usage and\/or long-distance operations like intercity buses (coaches), and regional and long-haul trucking. For other vehicle types and operations, it is of less critical importance than some of the other charging strategies.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Li-air battery", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Li-air battery", "name": "Li-air battery", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle battery (electrical storage)", "Lithium based batteries" ], "description": "In this concept the oxygen in the air would act as the cathode and lithium as the anode. This combination of materials offers a theoretical energy density of the same order of magnitude as liquid fuels. However, there are several significant technical barriers that prevent any design from reaching such a high density. While this technology is very promising in theory, its practical feasibility and viable performance are still to be demonstrated.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Beyond lithium-ion, technologies that have higher energy density might be needed to electrify vehicles that operate in energy- and power-intensive and long-distance operations, including aircrafts and long-haul ships.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Liquefied biogas", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Liquefied biogas", "name": "Liquefied biogas", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Advanced combustion engines and powetrains" ], "description": "This technology can be applied in vehicles (typically for heavy-duty applications) powered by an internal combustion engine, and fuelled by biomethane. The liquid biomethane is stored in cryogenic tanks, which enables it to be stored at a higher energy density than compressed methane, and is a cost-efficient solution for long-haul trucks. The liquefied biomethane powertrain, including dedicated piston engine, direct injection device and cryogenic tank, faces some technological challenges:\n* insulation of on-board liquefied biogas (LBG) storage in cryogenic tank (-162 °C)\n* risk of methane slip and incomplete methane combustion (requires combustion system optimisation and dedicated exhaust after-treatment system) \nMethane slip can also occur from liquefied natural gas (LNG) tank, which releases the evaporative phase methane under high pressure if the engine is not capable of using it.\nExhaust gas after-treatment catalysts should also be improved to increase the conversion rates of unburnt methane, especially at low temperatures (e.g. during engine warm-up, or when the engine is running at low loads).", "supplyChain": [ "Bio-based fuels", "Biofuels use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "The market for this technology is expected to remain niche because of the limited availability of renewable biomethane. Promising application opportunities are municipal fleets supplied by biomethane from municipal or agricultural waste.\nIn the case of the cost-competitive, abundant production of synthetic methane (from electrolysis from low-carbon electricity with a carbon-source) in the future and in countries where gas grids already exist, this technology could be applied on a wider scale.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Liquid hydrogen road transport", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Liquid hydrogen road transport", "name": "Liquid hydrogen road transport", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Hydrogen use in road transport", "Refueling and infrastructure" ], "description": "Liquid hydrogen provides greater energy density than compressed hydrogen, allowing for greater range of vehicles. It also increases the amount of energy that can be transported when considering centralised production and subsequent distribution of the liquid hydrogen.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen distribution" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 6, 6, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Hydrogen for road transport is important in some niche applications, but alternatives exist for the vast majority of modes and use cases.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Li-s battery", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Li-s battery", "name": "Li-s battery", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle battery (electrical storage)", "Lithium based batteries" ], "description": "This battery typically uses lithium as an anode while the cathode is made of sulphur. This concept offers the prospect of achieving a very high gravimetric energy density and does not require expensive cathode materials, as sulphur is very inexpensive and abundant. Prototype cells have already been developed with energy densities above 400 Wh\/kg. However, their lower volumetric energy density and currently short cycle life limit their attractiveness for mainstream EV applications. Defence may prove an early adopter, if technical obstacles such as short cycle life and safety concerns can be addressed.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Beyond lithium-ion, technologies that have higher energy density and lower material costs are needed to electrify vehicles that operate in energy- and power-intensive and long-distance operations, including aircrafts, ships and heavy-duty (e.g. drayage, regional and long-haul) trucks.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Lithium-ion battery", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Lithium-ion battery", "name": "Lithium-ion battery", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle battery (electrical storage)", "Lithium based batteries" ], "description": "Lithium-ion (Li-ion) is the dominant battery technology for electric vehicle (EV) applications, battery energy storage systems (BESS), portable and other electronic devices. In 2024, EV battery deployment accounted for about three-qaurters of battery demand, against 15% for BESS, 5% for portable electronics, and 5% for other applications, such as electric bikes and drones. The core element of lithium-ion batteries is the cell, which can have different size formats (prismatic, cylindrical, or pouch), which is assembled in modules and packs for uses in EVs, in full containerized systems for BESS, or used as such in portable electronics. Battery cells have three key components are the anode, cathode, and electrolyte. The anode and cathode store the lithium-ion, which are transfered from one to the other during battery discharge and charge, while the electrolyte ensure the movement of the li-ion from the anode to the cathode (and vice versa) while insultaing them electronically. The anode is typically composed of graphite with increasing shares of silicon, and various cathode chemistries coexist (the most common being the lithium iron phosphate (LFP) and nickel-based chemistries - lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) and lithium nickel cobalt aluminium oxide (NCA)). Within NMC cathodes, the elements can be found in various proportions. These range, for example, from NMC333, with equal shares of Ni, Mn and Co, to NMC811, with composition ratios of Ni, Mn, and Co of 8:1:1, with a current trend towards moving to lower cobalt content and higher nickel content. In 2024, LFP accounted for almost half of the EV battery market, with most of the rest using NMC batteries. LFP also accounted for over 90% of BESS installations in the same year. Portable electronics are still dominated by the older lithium cobalt oxyde (LCO) thanks to its high volumetric energy density.\nLi-ion is already a mature technology, but it innovation continue at a fast pace. Recent innovation in LFP technologies, particularly starting from its 4th generation, are increasing the importance of this chemistry to decrease EV production costs as they now enable largely sufficient electric ranges and longer lifetime while being less costly than their NMC eqquivalent, albeit the latter still provide greater energy density and therefore range. At the same time, safety standards are increasing, battery lifetime is demonstrating to be even longer than what initially predicted by manufacturers, and production costs continue to decline. The 2024 sales-weighted average cost was around USD 115\/kWh at pack level. The best energy density of this technology is around 250 Wh\/kg at the EV battery pack level for NMC batteries, and 200 Wh\/Kg for LFP batteries.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Li-ion batteries are the dominant battery technology in the automotive and battery energy storage system sectors today, underpining road trasport electriffication and support greater share in intermitted renewables in power grids. It is expected to remain the dominant technology in the next decade to come, even if it could be complemented by other technologies such as sodium-ion and solid-state batteries. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Low silicon content graphite anode battery", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Low silicon content graphite anode battery", "name": "Low silicon content graphite anode battery", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle battery (electrical storage)", "Lithium based batteries" ], "description": "Silicon is a promising anode material that can either be integrated with conventional graphite anode, or substitute it. The lithium storage capacity of silicon is roughly ten times higher than that of graphite, meaning that it holds great potential for increased energy density. Low silicon content (<10%) provides an incremental improvement in anode energy density.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Silicon doping in graphite anodes increase the energy density of the anode and therefore of the battery, enabling longer ranges and potentially decreasing prices per kWh.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Manganese-rich cathode battery", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Manganese-rich cathode battery", "name": "Manganese-rich cathode battery", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle battery (electrical storage)", "Lithium based batteries" ], "description": "Manganese-rich cathodes for Li-ion can potentially substitute significant amounts of expensive critical minerals such as nickel and cobalt with low-cost manganese. These cathodes have significant advantages for reducing lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxyde (NMC) battery production costs, reducing the gap with lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries. Higher manganese content is also being pursued in LFP batteries to increase their energy density while maintaining low production costs. Two significant manganese-rich chemistries include lithium nickel manganese oxide (LNMO) and lithium-manganese-rich NMC (LMR-NMC). LNMO contains no cobalt and has a notably higher energy density than LFP (though lower than high-nickel chemistries). LMR-NMC actually has a higher energy density than many high-nickel chemistries due to being lithium-rich (increasing lithium exposure) but it contains significantly less nickel than the top performance high-nickel chemistries.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Manganese-rich chemistries can be important to reduce nickel\/cobalt demand while still achieving higher energy densities while reducing the production cost gap between NMC and LFP batteries, potentially offering more long term market diversification.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Medium-high silicon content anode battery", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Medium-high silicon content anode battery", "name": "Medium-high silicon content anode battery", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle battery (electrical storage)", "Lithium based batteries" ], "description": "Silicon is a promising anode material that can either be integrated with conventional graphite anode, or substitute it. The lithium storage capacity of silicon is roughly ten times higher than that of graphite, meaning that it holds great potential for increased energy density. Medium silicon content ranges from over 10 to 50%. Reaching medium to high silicon content in lithium-ion batteries is challenging because of the expansion and contraction of silicon particles (up to over three times their initial volume) during battery charging and discharging, even though strategies such as pre-lithiation can help reduce this range.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Higher silicon content in anodes (>10%) can significantly increase the energy density of batteries without requiring a change to cathode chemistry; this technology can be particularly important if deployed in the period before 2030.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Methanol-fuelled engine", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Methanol-fuelled engine", "name": "Methanol-fuelled engine", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Advanced combustion engines and powetrains" ], "description": "Methanol engines (so-called ''M100'', as vehicles fuelled by 100% methanol) are similar in design to gasoline engines, with moderate changes: material compatibility to prevent corrosion, adapted injection system, a dedicated cold start device and strategy, and adapted after-treatment for exhaust gas. Due to the high octane of the fuel, methanol engines can benefit from a high compression ratio, thus increasing thermal efficiency, possibly up to higher levels than for diesel engines. Methanol engines generate very low particulate emissions levels due to the molecule's specificity of having a single carbon atom - just as in the case of methane. The methanol is in liquid form at standard temperature and pressure, making it relatively easy to handle and store, although it is toxic for humans. \nMethanol can be produced as a biofuel or as a synthetic fuel (from electrolysis from low-carbon electricity with a carbon source). However, the availability of sustainably sourced biomass to produce methanol is limited.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels use", "Methanol and ethanol", "Biofuels use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "The availability of sustainably sourced biomass to produce methanol is limited and the cost of producing methanol as a synthetic fuel is quite high relative to other alternative low-emission fuel options for transport.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Multivalent ion battery", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Multivalent ion battery", "name": "Multivalent ion battery", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle battery (electrical storage)", "Next-generation metal batteries" ], "description": "The proposed concept for this technology is to use elements where each active ion is able to release more than one electron. Commonly studied elements for this concept are magnesium, calcium and aluminium. These offer the potential for higher energy density and to move away from reliance on lithium and other scarce materials. The technology is still at early stages of development.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "These chemistries are based on abundant minerals which have advantages for cost and for reducing supply chain constraints and reliance on critical minerals.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Platooning and road train", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Platooning and road train", "name": "Platooning and road train", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Other vehicles" ], "description": "Platooning and road trains are solutions to reduce energy consumption in road freight transport by reducing aerodynamic drag. Platooning refers to trucks that closely follow each other, and are equipped with state-of-the-art driving support, forming a platoon of trucks driven by smart vehicle communication and automation (CAV) technologies. This allows trucks to drive closer together at near-constant speeds, which reduces air resistance (and thereby fuel consumption) and increases the capacity of roads. The fuel savings of truck platooning are estimated to range from 5% (at 20 metres distance) to 15% (at 4 metres between trucks) for a three-truck platoon travelling at 80 km\/h. Among the challenges is the operation of multi-brand trucks in a single platoon, requiring communication standards. A road train consists of several trailers hauled by a single tractor.", "supplyChain": [ "Other" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Whatever the truck powertrain technology, platooning is a cost-effective strategy (''smart'' technology'). It can contribute to the reduction of energy consumption of the road freight sector by 4-15% and can reduce traffic congestion.\n(Sources: https:\/\/clepa.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/10\/CLEPA-Platooning-Panel-A4-V4-HD.pdf ; http:\/\/www.nrel.gov\/transportation\/fleettest-platooning.html )", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Polymer electrolyte membrane hydrogen fuel cell as range-extender in EVs", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Polymer electrolyte membrane hydrogen fuel cell as range-extender in EVs", "name": "Polymer electrolyte membrane hydrogen fuel cell as range-extender in EVs", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Hydrogen use in road transport", "Hydrogen fuel cell for FCEVs" ], "description": "Same as PEM fuel cell, but sized to only provide range extension to the battery electric powertrain.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "For electric vehicles (EVs), fuel cell technology represents a complementary solution to reduce dependency on batteries. The need for critical Li-ion battery materials would be alleviated (at the expense of an increased demand for platinum). Various range-extended fuel-cell EVs have been introduced (and many discontinued) in vehicle markets across different segments. Many light commercial vehicles and medium-freight trucks sold in China are, in fact, fuel-cell range extended EVs.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Polymer electrolyte membrane hydrogen fuel cell for FCEVs", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Polymer electrolyte membrane hydrogen fuel cell for FCEVs", "name": "Polymer electrolyte membrane hydrogen fuel cell for FCEVs", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Hydrogen use in road transport", "Hydrogen fuel cell for FCEVs" ], "description": "A hydrogen fuel cell system generates electric power from hydrogen. Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) have much smaller batteries than battery electric vehicles (at least by a factor of 10), as the energy is stored in the hydrogen. By exploiting the higher gravimetric energy density of hydrogen, FCEVs can offer a higher range than BEVs. However their continuing deployment faces multiple technical and economic challenges, including: safety of hydrogen handling (refuelling, residual leakage), on-board hydrogen storage (see the dedicated entry below) and the high cost of the fuel cell stack (the electrochemical reaction inside the stack requires a proton exchange membrane (PEM) coated with a platinum-based catalyst, a costly material) and system. Costs of the fuel cell stack and system are expected to decline significantly with economies of scale.\nFor FCEVs to be competitive with other powertrain technologies, hydrogen must be delivered to hydrogen refuelling stations using technologies that lead to zero or very low lifecycle emissions, at prices that bring per-kilometre costs into the same range as conventional ICEs, or of battery electric vehicles powered by grid electricity. This will require further cost reductions in technologies for low- and zero-carbon hydrogen production technologies (e.g. SMR with CCS, renewable electricity generation such as wind and solar coupled to electrolysers), as well as in hydrogen transmission and distribution networks and in hydrogen refuelling stations (HRS).", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "For electric vehicles, fuel cell technology represents a complementary solution to reduce dependency on batteries. The need for critical Li-ion battery materials would be alleviated (at the expense of an increased demand for platinum).", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Potassium-ion battery", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Potassium-ion battery", "name": "Potassium-ion battery", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle battery (electrical storage)", "Next-generation metal batteries" ], "description": "Potassium-ion (K-ion) has the same working principle as lithium-ion (Li-ion) and sodium-ion (Na-ion) batteries, but uses potassium as ion to transfer energy from the cathode to the anode during battery charge and dischargeg. K-ion typically relies on abundant materials for its leading cathode active materials (which contain no lithium, nickel, nor cobalt), and thus, similarly to sodium-ion chemistries, they come with potential to reduce critical mineral demand. Unlike Na-ion, K-ion can use graphite anodes which means it can use the graphite anode supply chains developed for Li-ion batteries.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Potassium-ion batteries contain no lithium oand potentially no critical minerals in anode and cathode materials. Potassium is highly abundant and more globally distributed than lithium, which could offer supply chain diversification advantages.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Rare-earth free electric motor", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Rare-earth free electric motor", "name": "Rare-earth free electric motor", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle (EV)" ], "description": "Permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) currently dominate the electric vehicle (EV) market due to their high power density, efficiency, and relatively low manufacturing costs. These motors rely on rare-earth magnets, primarily containing neodymium and dysprosium—the strongest known permanent magnetic materials. However, the supply chain for rare-earth elements is highly geographically concentrated and has experienced significant price volatility. Environmental concerns related to mining and processing of these materials further underline the need for alternative motor technologies.\n\nA range of rare-earth-free electric motor technologies are available or under development:\n(1) Externally excited synchronous motors (EESMs) – Already deployed in production vehicles (e.g. Renault, BMW). These motors eliminate the need for permanent magnets by using an electromagnetic rotor field. They are more complex to manufacture and typically have lower efficiency and power density compared to PMSMs. \n(2) Induction motors – Widely used in earlier EV generations (e.g. Tesla, Audi, Mercedes). They are robust and rare-earth-free but generally less efficient and heavier than PMSMs, which has led to declining market share. \n(3) Rare-earth-free permanent magnets – Research and development efforts are ongoing to produce high-performance magnets based on alternative materials, such as ferrites or iron–nitride compounds. \n(4) Novel synchronous motor concepts – Emerging designs aim to combine high efficiency and compactness without the use of rare-earth elements, supported by advances in materials science and power electronics.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (vehicles)" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "With the current accelerating deployment of electric cars, the need for rare-earth materials will increase accordingly, if current dominant motor designs persist. This could pose supply chain issues because of the prare earths and permanent magnet production geographical concentration. Rare-earth free alternatives could alleviate these issues.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Semi solid-state battery", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Semi solid-state battery", "name": "Semi solid-state battery", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle battery (electrical storage)", "Other batteries technologies" ], "description": "Semi-solid-state batteries typically combine a high-energy-density anode, such as lithium metal, with a polymer electrolyte. To achieve performance levels suitable for electric vehicle applications, these batteries often require operating temperatures between 60 °C and 90 °C. While the use of lithium metal enables higher energy density, it also increases manufacturing complexity and necessitates enhanced safety measures to manage the high reactivity of lithium metal.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ 8, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Solid-state batteries could unlock higher energy density and allow greater penetration of transport electrification in general, and of medium- and heavy-duty trucks in particular. Semi-solid state batteries are a basis towards that direction.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Smart charging (transport demand response)", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Smart charging (transport demand response)", "name": "Smart charging (transport demand response)", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "EV charging equipment", "Demand response" ], "description": "Smart charging refers to the co-ordinated and managed charging of the batteries in electric vehicles in a way that benefits the system, avoiding peak demand or congestion on the grid. While it does not require a very different infrastructure, innovation is needed to integrate IT and OT (Operational Technologies), including remote sensing, big data analytics, remote sensing and control. The simplest strategy for deployment, from a technology perspective, would be to develop back-end systems that would function without much involvement from consumers, and incorporate information on grid needs and services that can be provided by EV batteries, and allow for these services to be delivered to the grid by default contracts, rather than relying on opt-in from customers.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (vehicles)", "Flexibility (grids)", "Electricity transmission and distribution", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "With instantaneous loads above the rated capacity of the average household, integrating large numbers of electric vehicles (EVs) will eventually impose burdens on local distribution grids as well as upstream transmission and generation. Today, hotspots are already seen in specific areas with high penetration of high-capacity EVs.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Sodium-ion battery", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Sodium-ion battery", "name": "Sodium-ion battery", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Electric vehicle battery (electrical storage)", "Next-generation metal batteries" ], "description": "The working principle for sodium-ion (Na-ion) batteries is the same as Lithium-ion - the difference is the change in the cation (i.e. sodium instead of lithium). Na-ion is currently one of the most viable chemistries, capable of fulfilling some Li-ion functions, with the key advantage that it does not contain any lithium, thus avoiding lithium demand. Its leading anode and cathode materials are different from those used in Li-ion battery chemistries, and some Na-io chemistries is composed of abundant, potentially safe and low-cost elements containing no nickel or cobalt. Na-ion batteries still exhibits lower energy density than lithium-ion and are currently more expensive than lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries because of their less mature supply chain. Therefore, their market outlook hinges either on increasing its energy density or high lithium prices making Na-ion less expensive than LFP batteries. Besides, sodium-ion could provide a competitive advantage in certain applications where LFP is less suited, such as particularly cold climates.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity storage" ], "trl": [ null, 5, 6, 8, 8, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Sodium-ion battery is the only commercial battery chemistry that can substitute lithium-ion batteries in certain applications, such as in small electric vehicles, battery storage, or electric vehicles operating in cold climates. As sodium-ion batteries do not contain lithium, they can offer supply chain diversification advantages.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Standard flow rate (60-120 g\/s)", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Standard flow rate (60-120 g\/s)", "name": "Standard flow rate (60-120 g\/s)", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "Hydrogen use in road transport", "Refueling and infrastructure" ], "description": "Normally, hydrogen refuelling stations (HRS) operate at 350 or 700 bar. Most of the stations for passenger cars are designed for operating at 700 bar, while stations for buses typically use 350 bar. For this reason, the majority of the stations currently operate at 700 bar, with many of them operating on a dual basis, being able to deliver fuel to both at 350 and 700 bar. Hydrogen refuelling can be standalone, or linked to a hydrogen production station. If the hydrogen is delivered to the station in intermediary form, storage and compression systems are needed. Hydrogen storage systems are generally low pressure, around 50-200 bar. Compressors overcome the pressure difference between storage and refuelling (which can be up to 1 000 bar), and they are a central area of innovation in hydrogen refuelling stations. Most of the time, storage buffers (at 450 or 950 bar) are used to refuel vehicles (without a direct connection of vehicles to compressor outlet).\nA range of technologies can be employed for compressing H2 from low pressure states to up to those needed at the point of use, depending on whether hydrogen is in gaseous or liquid form, and on the throughput vehicle type. High levels of purity are needed in fuel cell applications, so technologies like ionic compressors are needed to reduce the possibility of contamination. During compression the hydrogen gas heats up, and precooling systems are needed to stay within the limits of the vehicle’s fuel storage system. These systems add complexity and increase energy consumption, and are a key area of development for improving the efficiency and reducing costs of hydrogen refuelling systems.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen distribution" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Hydrogen for road transport is important in some niche applications, but alternatives exist for the vast majority of modes and use cases.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ultra-fast charging (>1 MW)", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Ultra-fast charging (>1 MW)", "name": "Ultra-fast charging (>1 MW)", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "EV charging equipment" ], "description": "Multiple charging standards are currently being developed for charging medium- and heavy-duty vehicles at power rates of greater than 1 MW. Technical specifications for ultra-fast charging are under development. In China, co-developers China Electricity Council and CHAdeMO’s “ultra ChaoJi” are developing a charging standard for heavy-duty electric vehicles for up to several megawatts. In Europe and the United States, specifications for the CharIN Megawatt Charging System (MCS), with a potential maximum power of 4.5 MW, are under development by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and other organisations. The final MCS specifications, which will be needed for commercial roll-out of medium- and heavy-duty electric vehicles, are expected for 2025. Ensuring maximum possible convergence of charging standards and interoperability for heavy-duty EVs will be needed to avoid the cost, inefficiency, and challenges for vehicle importers and international operators that would be created by manufacturers following divergent paths.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ null, null, 6, 6, 7, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Vehicles (exc. 2-3w) (charging)", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Vehicles (exc. 2-3w) (charging)", "name": "Vehicles (exc. 2-3w) (charging)", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "EV charging equipment", "Battery swapping" ], "description": "Battery swapping is an alternative to conventional electric vehicle (EV) charging, designed to reduce refuelling time. At a battery swapping station, an EV user can automatically exchange a depleted battery for a fully charged one, typically in a matter of minutes. This approach can improve vehicle utilisation and support the deployment of EVs across multiple segments, from passenger cars to two- and three-wheelers and heavy-duty vehicles.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (batteries)", "Storage batteries", "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ null, null, 7, 8, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, "A", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "With the electric vehicle (EV) charging time being a constraint for some consumers, an efficient battery swapping technology that could be implemented in a timeframe comparable to that of refuelling internal combustion engines could be attractive. Furthermore, battery swapping stations could act as energy storage and help unload the grid during peak consumption hours. Today, the market is more inclined to prioritise fast and ultra fast chargers due to the cost of swapping stations and their complexity. Furthermore, the technology is not ready to be commercialised at a large scale as stations are not compatible with all EV models.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Vehicle-to-grid (v2g)", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Vehicle-to-grid (v2g)", "name": "Vehicle-to-grid (v2g)", "sector": [ "Transport", "Road transport", "EV charging equipment", "Demand response" ], "description": "Bidirectional charging enables power to flow both to and from an electric vehicle, allowing EV batteries to support homes (V2H), buildings (V2B), appliances loads (V2L) or the wider grid (V2G). By enabling EVs to store electricity when it is cheap or abundant and discharge when it is scarce or valuable, V2G can provide services such as peak shaving, frequency regulation and local flexibility. Delivering these capabilities requires bidirectional chargers, electric cars that enable delivering electricity, communication protocols that ensure safe and secure power export, and market frameworks that allow consumers or aggregators to participate in grid-service markets. While technically part of the broader smart-charging ecosystem, V2G is considered a separate technology given its additional hardware, interoperability and regulatory requirements.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (vehicles)", "Flexibility (grids)", "Electricity transmission and distribution", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ammonia (bunkering)", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Ammonia (bunkering)", "name": "Ammonia (bunkering)", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Charging and refuelling" ], "description": "Ammonia is easier to store than hydrogen. It can be stored in a liquid form in pressurised tanks (1 Mpa, ambient temperature) or at ambient pressure with a temperature of -33 °C (instead of -253 °C for H2). Refrigeration techniques are required, not cryogenics. Ammonia offers a higher volumetric energy content compared to hydrogen (+70%).\nAmmonia is already produced and transported in large quantities around the world. Therefore bunker supplies could, in theory, be readily accommodated. \nAmmonia is very toxic and thus specific design and operation measures need to be implemented: no bunkering at the same time as cargo loading\/unloading; layout with ample space and minimized distances; if possible, remote operation to reduce personnel exposure; special procedures and protective equipment for the personnel; purging of the lines with inert gas and the possibility to drain ammonia back from ship to bunker.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels storage", "Ammonia" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Ammonia is easier to store than hydrogen, and benefits from an already existing infrastructure and distribution network (due to its industrial use, mainly for fertiliser synthesis) which would need scaling up in case of broad application in shipping. Low production costs and lack of carbon dioxide emissions make ammonia a very promising low-emission fuel option, especially for long voyages, provided that safety and toxicity issues can be adequately addressed.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Cold ironing", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Cold ironing", "name": "Cold ironing", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Charging and refuelling" ], "description": "When at berth, a ship still requires energy: for hotelling (e.g. cruise ships), refrigeration (refrigerated containers), on-board crane operation, etc.\nSo-called ''cold ironing'' or Alternate Maritime Power (AMP) consists of plugging in the vessel to the grid instead of running the auxiliary engine(s) of the ship. Typical associated power can be in from several MVA for Ro-Ro ships, up to more than 10 MVA for cruise ships. \nThis also reduces on-board noise and vibrations, extends machinery lifetime and reduces engine maintenance needs.\nDedicated installations are required in the harbour and on-board. These must manage the variations in electric features (voltage, frequency, connectors). In particular, dedicated substation transformer of adequate rating is necessary, with secondary voltage of either 6.6 or 11.0 kV, and potentially a frequency transformer from 50 Hz to 60 Hz. The use of fuel cells for port-side power has already been demonstrated.", "supplyChain": [ "Other" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Reduces CO2 emissions (reductions are greater with low-carbon electricity) and local air pollution in the harbour, where maximum exposure occurs.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen (bunkering)", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Hydrogen (bunkering)", "name": "Hydrogen (bunkering)", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Charging and refuelling" ], "description": "Establishing hydrogen bunkering infrastructure is an important step in introducing hydrogen propulsion in ships. However, vessels have not yet been designed, and there isn't currently a bunker vessel standard to work to. The technology systems depend entirely on the method for hydrogen storage (liquid or compressed gas). A vessel that has bunker tanks for liquid hydrogen needs a liquefied hydrogen supply. Compressed gas could be refuelled by a liquid hydrogen bunker vessel equipped with a regasification plant, or if stored as gas in the port, transferred by pressure balancing or compressing the gas into the ship. \nThe choice of the hydrogen storage method has implications for the technology used to power the vessel. A gas engine is preferred for liquid hydrogen as the excess heat from combustion can be used to evaporate hydrogen. Gaseous hydrogen generally works better with on-board fuel cells, even if it can also be made suitable for gas engines, particularly if co-fired with natural gas. \nCost-effective liquefaction chains for hydrogen are key for bunkering, as liquid hydrogen is expected to offer advantages over pressurised hydrogen gas in relation to transportation costs. In contrast with LNG where the gas is transported into the port, the economics of hydrogen mean that hydrogen liquefaction plants are likely to be located close to port, requiring stronger integration between systems.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen storage", "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 4, 5, 5, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Hydrogen is expected to play an important role for small- and medium-size ships in the NZE Scenario. Hydrogen bunkering infrastructure is essential to guarantee the operation of hydrogen-fuelled vessels", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Methanol (bunkering)", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Methanol (bunkering)", "name": "Methanol (bunkering)", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Charging and refuelling" ], "description": "Methanol is routinely handled as cargo. There are currently many ports with methanol storage facilities worldwide, and various ports – such as Gothenburg – have issued methanol bunkering rules or are preparing to do so. In the short run, ships can bunker methanol from tank trucks. The long-term solution will probably be bunker vessels because of their simplicity and flexibility.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels storage", "Methanol and ethanol" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "The availability of sustainably sourced biomass to produce methanol is limited and the cost of producing methanol as a synthetic fuel (from electrolysis from low-emission electricity with a carbon-source) is quite high relative to alternative low-emission fuel options for transport. However, the higher technologial maturity of this alternative makes it an important mid-term solution for shipping decarbonisation.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Air lubrication", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Air lubrication", "name": "Air lubrication", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Other components" ], "description": "Air lubrication systems (ALS) use compressed air released over the bottom of a vessel hull to reduce the friction incurred by the passing water. Different technologies can be used: air bubble lubrication is the most mature solution, and necessitates balancing the additional energy necessary to actuate the air compressor(s) with the propulsion energy savings; other more advanced solutions include air cavity, which requires a bounded section on the hull to entrap air and eliminate contact with water over a large area, and air cushion, which uses a large volume of air to elevate the vessel.", "supplyChain": [ "Other" ], "trl": [ 8, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, "A", "A", "A", "A", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Currently, this technology is readily available commercially and applicable to ships with large flat-bottom hulls, typically LNG carriers and some container ships. The typical energy savings are 3 – 9%.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Foul release hull coating", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Foul release hull coating", "name": "Foul release hull coating", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Other components" ], "description": "Hull coatings are spread on the immersed body of the ship to reduce its hydrodynamic drag. They reduce corrosion and hull roughness, also preventing bio-fouling (e.g. algae, small animals) that increases drag over time. New generations of coatings should enhance drag performance while offering more environmentally friendly formulas. Indeed, most of the current coatings can be harmful to the environment, due to their chemical components.", "supplyChain": [ "Other" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "A", "A", "A", "A", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Reducing hull roughness and preventing hull fouling reduces ship energy consumption by a few percentage points, possibly up to 10-15%", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hull form optimisation", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Hull form optimisation", "name": "Hull form optimisation", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Other components" ], "description": "Hull form optimisation is a highly effective tool for reducing total hull resistance for a given speed on new vessels, if implemented early in the design process. It typically involves computational fluid dynamics. The introduction of AI, through deep learning models and surrogate-based optimization, has the potential to significantly accelerate the design process.", "supplyChain": [ "Other" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Expected energy efficiency improvement is 3-8%, with ships operating at above 10 knots being the preferred target.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Kite", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Kite", "name": "Kite", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Other components" ], "description": "Large towing kites are attached to the ship with long cables to access strong winds 100 metres above the ship. This way traction is provided to the ship, in addition to the propulsion provided by the ship's engine. This system can be fully automated and thus does not require a dedicated crew on board to manage its operations.", "supplyChain": [ "Other" ], "trl": [ 6, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Kites can reduce the fuel consumption of ships up to 15%. They cannot be used at all times, because they require clement weather conditions and an appropriate wind direction. Kites are more likely to complement the power provided by the engine, thus reducing fuel consumption, rather than replacing the need for an engine. Depending on the technology, kites may also require additional space on the deck, leading to trade-offs with space availability for cargo.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Onboard CO2 capture for ships", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Onboard CO2 capture for ships", "name": "Onboard CO2 capture for ships", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Other components" ], "description": "Onboard Carbon Capture (OCC) can be applied to all carbon-containing fuels (including fossil, electro-, bio- fuels). CO2 can be captured pre-combustion (e.g. when using methanol as hydrogen carrier) or post-combustion (e.g. when retrofitting existing HFO or diesel ships). Captured CO2 is liquefied and stored onboard, and is later off-loaded on shore. OCC has a significant impact on the ship's energy consumption (up to +40%), which has the side effect of increasing fossil fuel demand. In terms of cost and technological readiness, the advantage of OCC compared to other decarbonization solutions is not completely clear. One of the challenges is to develop, in parallel to onboard technologies, the network of CO2 collection at ports and of transport to the final storage locations. However, OCC may have a role to play to aleviate the pressure on alternative fuel supply ramp up.", "supplyChain": [ "CO2 capture", "Other" ], "trl": [ 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "According to the Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller Center for Zero Carbon Shipping, abatement costs are currently expected to be high, but emission reduction potential can be significant. Based on the potential role Onboard Carbon Capture could play in the mid-term to reduce the emission intensity of existing fossil-fuelled vessels (bridging technology), the technology should be further developed and considered in parallel and in combination with alternative fuels.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Rotor sail - rigid sail", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Rotor sail - rigid sail", "name": "Rotor sail - rigid sail", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Other components" ], "description": "Sails can alleviate engine requested power for ship propulsion.\nFlettner Rotor Sails is a technology that exploits the Magnus effect, which results from a pressure difference created by air speed differences on each side of the rotor, resulting in a lift force perpendicular to the wind flow direction. This force can be harnessed to reduce fuel consumption. This technology offers higher efficiency when applied to slow-steaming vessels.\nOther systems like rigid sails or suction sails also exist.", "supplyChain": [ "Other" ], "trl": [ 8, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "This is a promising technology to use wind power and reduce shipping energy consumption, while requiring low maintenance. The demonstrated fuel consumption reduction is on the order of 5-8%, with the potential to reduce consumption by up to 12-20%. Energy savings obviously depend on wind conditions, so wind propulsion is best coupled with route optimisation.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Rudder bulb", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Rudder bulb", "name": "Rudder bulb", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Other components" ], "description": "Rudders are located behind the propellers, in highly turbulent flow fields, and can lead to high drag losses. Thanks to their special shape, rudder bulbs are optimising the water flow pattern between the propeller and the rudder, thus reducing energy loss and the ship's fuel consumption.", "supplyChain": [ "Other" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "This technology offers improved propulsive efficiency thanks to a better coupling between the designs of both the propeller and the rudder. The fuel consumption of the ship can be reduced by up to 10%.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ship engine waste heat recovery", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Ship engine waste heat recovery", "name": "Ship engine waste heat recovery", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Other components" ], "description": "Waste heat recovery systems recover the thermal energy from the exhaust gas and convert it into electrical energy, while the residual heat can further be used for ship services (such as hot water and steam). There are several technologies available: power turbine generator (PTG) and steam turbine generator (STG) technologies are mature, while Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC), that uses a refrigerant, and supercritical CO2 are still being developed.", "supplyChain": [ "Other", "Heat end use" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Power\/Steam Turbine Generator is a commercially available and mature technology that can generate energy savings, typically of 5%. Organic Rankine Cycle has a lower saving potential and is less mature, but is is compact and easier to retrofit.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ammonia-fuelled ship engine", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Ammonia-fuelled ship engine", "name": "Ammonia-fuelled ship engine", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Propulsion", "Clean-fuel internal combustion ship engines" ], "description": "Combustion engines fuelled with ammonia could represent a carbon-free solution for ship propulsion, particularly for long-distance oceangoing merchant ships.\nAmmonia is the most traded chemical commodity, so operators already have expertise in handling it. Its storage and transport infrastructure is well deployed. Ammonia is over 50% more energy-dense per unit of volume than liquid hydrogen, therefore potentially more suitable as a transport fuel than hydrogen. With ammonia, the tanks would still need to be 3.4 times larger than for diesel for the same energy capacity.\nIt is stored at -33°C, which is higher than the storage temperatures required for natural gas and hydrogen (-153°C and -253°C, respectively).\nNevertheless, challenges remain, especially related to the hard-to-ignite combustion process and a low flame speed. \nAmmonia is very toxic and thus specific design and operation measures need to be implemented: confinement of machinery, tank connection spaces and fuel preparation room; double piping; leak detection; boil-off gas management system; ventilation of confinement areas; corrosion-resistant materials; layout protecting tanks in case of collision or loading\/unloading accidents; special procedures and protective equipment for maintenance personnel.\nEngine design and exhaust gas treatment must also control ammonia slip and NOx release, for their potential impact on human health, and N2O emissions, as its global warming potential is 265 times higher than that of CO2.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels use", "Ammonia" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Ammonia is seen to be one of the most promising synthetic fuels, as it is easier to store than hydrogen. It benefits from an already existing infrastructure and distribution network (due to its industrial use, mainly for fertiliser synthesis) - which would need scaling up in the case of broad application in shipping. Internal combustion engines adapted to this fuel are one option for the use of this energy vector.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Biodiesel-fuelled ship engine", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Biodiesel-fuelled ship engine", "name": "Biodiesel-fuelled ship engine", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Propulsion", "Clean-fuel internal combustion ship engines" ], "description": "There are several kinds of biodiesels, that are produced from biomass and can be used in conventional marine engines: Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO), Fatty Acif Methyl Ester (FAME) and biomass-to-liquid (BtL). The sustainablity of those fuels depend on how the biomass used as feedstock has been produced, in particular on the land use change, deforestation and the possible competition with food production.\nConcerning the feasibility of using those fuels directly in existing engines, it is necessary to consider their behaviour in terms of combustion, but also in terms of storage. HVO is made of paraffinic hydrocarbons that are compatible with most existing fuel systems and has a robust storage stability. FAME on the other hand has different chemical properties from diesel oil and its hygroscopic nature can favor microbiological growth, which can be a challenge in terms of storage. BtL has a similar chemical composition as fossil diesel.\nStandard ISO8217 specifies the required characteristics of marine biofuels. HVO and BtL are considered as drop-in fuels (that can be used without being blended with regular diesel), while a blending limit of 7% in volume is recommended for FAME (above this limit, specific testing is necessary)", "supplyChain": [ "Bio-based fuels", "Biofuels use", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "As biodiesels are mostly drop-in, they are a preferred solution to prolong the life of existing ships in the context of decarbonisation. However, their take-up is expected to be limited by the quantity of sustainable biomass available and the competition with other sector like aviation. The most scalable biodiesels (BtL) also tend to be the most expensive, so as far as new ships are concerned, other options like ammonia or methanol propulsion are expected to make more sense in the long run.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Biogas-fuelled ship engine", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Biogas-fuelled ship engine", "name": "Biogas-fuelled ship engine", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Propulsion", "Clean-fuel internal combustion ship engines" ], "description": "Biogas produced by anaerobic digestion of organic matter is made up of a majority of methane, and of CO2. It can be upgraded to biomethane and liquefied to bio-LNG. Given that bio-LNG is chemically equivalent to LNG, it can be used by vessels currently running on fossil LNG without any major change.", "supplyChain": [ "Bio-based fuels", "Biofuels use", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Liquefied natural gas (LNG) allows for the reduction of pollutant emissions such as NOx and SOx, but its climate change mitigation potential is fairly limited. Liquefied biomethane could be a sustainable and cost-effective pathway to use gas engines in shipping, but the limited availability of sustainably sourced biomass for the production of biogas hinder its deployment.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hydrogen-fuelled ship engine", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Hydrogen-fuelled ship engine", "name": "Hydrogen-fuelled ship engine", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Propulsion", "Clean-fuel internal combustion ship engines" ], "description": "This type of vessel is powered by an internal combustion engine fuelled by hydrogen.\nHydrogen engines available on the market use a blend of diesel and H2, while pure hydrogen engines are currently under development by several companies.\nCompared to hydrogen fuel cells, internal combustion engines are characterised by a lower upfront investment, a more compact propulsion system, but the need for larger hydrogen storage tanks for a given range, due to their lower energy efficiency.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Hydrogen engines do not require rare materials like platinum, as is the case for fuel cells. Moreover, internal combustion engines are less sensitive to hydrogen quality than fuel cells. They could represent a viable solution for medium distance carbon-neutral ship propulsion. Challenges remain in the development of the required bunkering infrastructure, in the low energy density of hydrogen (about 7 times less than diesel for liquid hydrogen, hence requiring a much larger tank for the same range) and in the need to store the liquefied hydrogen at about -253 °C.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Methanol-fuelled ship engine", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Methanol-fuelled ship engine", "name": "Methanol-fuelled ship engine", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Propulsion", "Clean-fuel internal combustion ship engines" ], "description": " Methanol has been used as fuel by chemical tankers since the mid 2010s. Methanol is easier to handle than ammonia, but still highly flammable and toxic. It necessitates double walled piping and storage tanks 2.5 larger than for diesel with the same energy capacity. Methanol is easier to ignite than ammonia, but current designs still typically use fossil or biodiesel as pilot fuel.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels use", "Methanol and ethanol" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "The availability of sustainably sourced biomass to produce methanol is limited and the cost of producing methanol as a synthetic fuel (from electrolysis from low-carbon electricity with a carbon-source) is quite high relative to alternative low-emission fuel options for transport. ", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "High temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell electric ship", "breadcrumb": "Transport > High temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell electric ship", "name": "High temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell electric ship", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Propulsion", "Fuel cell electric ship" ], "description": "High Temperature Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (HT-PEMFC) have low sensitivity to impurities, thus being able to run with LNG, methanol, diesel and hydrogen after an external reforming stage. The operational temperature is 150-200 °C and these HT-PEMFC have an efficiency of 50-60%. They have a moderate cost (compared to other fuel cell technologies for maritime applications), and can have modules of up to 30 kW of power. There is uncertainty regarding their lifetime, http:\/\/www.dnvgl.com\/maritime\/publications\/alternative-fuel-assessment-download.html.\nDue to limited power output, this technology is likely to be used preferably for small and medium vessels, as currently proven by the ongoing demonstrations.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Fuel cells have higher energy efficiency than internal combustion maritime engines - though the gap is not as high as it is in the case of road vehicles - and do not emit pollutants.\nHigh temperature proton exchange membranes (PEMs) can work with several fuels and thus provide flexibility to ship operators, but are expensive due to the rare materials in the membrane. \nTheir limited power density is challenging for long-distance routes, making this technology more suited to short- and medium-distance vessels.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Molten carbonate fuel cell electric ship", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Molten carbonate fuel cell electric ship", "name": "Molten carbonate fuel cell electric ship", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Propulsion", "Fuel cell electric ship" ], "description": "Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) operate at very high temperature (600-700 degrees Celsius). They have medium sensitivity to impurities and are flexible with regards to fuel choice. MCFC are very costly (compared to other fuel cell technologies for maritime applications). They can have large modules (up to 500 kW of power) and have a good lifetime. Their typical efficiency is around 50%, which can be optimised to 85% with heat recovery, http:\/\/www.dnvgl.com\/maritime\/publications\/alternative-fuel-assessment-download.html\nDue to limited power output, this technology is likely to be used preferably for small and medium vessels, as currently proved by the ongoing demonstrations.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 5, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Fuel cells have limited better energy efficiency than internal combustion maritime engines and do not emit pollutants.\nMolten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) have high efficiency, high flexibility and large size, potentially making them an option to power oceangoing vessels.\nTheir limited power density is challenging for long-distance routes, making this technology more suited to short- and medium-distance vessels.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Proton exchange membrane fuel cell electric ship", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Proton exchange membrane fuel cell electric ship", "name": "Proton exchange membrane fuel cell electric ship", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Propulsion", "Fuel cell electric ship" ], "description": "This type of vessel is operated by a hydrogen fuel cell. Due to limited power output, this technology is likely to be used preferably for small and medium vessels, as currently proven by on-going demonstrations.\nDifferent fuel-cell types exist and their names reflect the materials used in the electrolyte membrane.\nDNV GL evaluated 7 fuel-cell technologies and concluded that the following are the most promising for maritime applications.\nAccording to the study from DNV-GL, the proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell is considered a mature technology. Its operating temperature is 50-100 °C, and has a typical efficiency of 50-60% and a moderate lifetime. It has medium sensitivity to impurity, thus requiring hydrogen as a fuel, and a low cost (compared to other fuel cell technologies for maritime applications). \nManufacturing compact fuel cells with high output power is quite challenging. This technology is therefore likely to be used preferably for small and medium vessels.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Fuel cells have higher energy efficiency than internal combustion maritime engines - though the gap is not as high as it is in the case of road vehicles - and do not emit pollutants.\n\nWhile proton exchange membranes (PEMs) are the most widespread fuel cell type for automotive applications, other types of fuel cells such as Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) and alkaline seem more suitable for maritime applications (where high operative temperature requirements do not pose problems).\n\nPossible applications could be in short distance inland shipping, rather than in oceangoing vessels.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Solid oxide fuel cell electric ship", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Solid oxide fuel cell electric ship", "name": "Solid oxide fuel cell electric ship", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Propulsion", "Fuel cell electric ship" ], "description": "Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) run at very high temperature (500-1000 °C).\nThis fuel cell has low sensitivity to impurities, thus being able to run with hydrogen, methanol, ammonia, LNG and diesel. It has a high cost (compared to other fuel cell technologies for maritime applications), can have medium size and has a moderate lifetime. Typical efficiency is 60% and this can be optimised to 85% with heat recovery, http:\/\/www.dnvgl.com\/maritime\/publications\/alternative-fuel-assessment-download.html.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen direct use", "Hydrogen" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Fuel cells have better energy efficiency than internal combustion maritime engines and do not emit pollutants.\nSolid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) can work with several fuels and thus provide flexibility to ship operators, potentially making them an option to power oceangoing vessels.\nTheir limited power density is challenging for long-distance routes, making this technology more suited to short- and medium-distance vessels.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Battery electric ship", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Battery electric ship", "name": "Battery electric ship", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Propulsion" ], "description": "In battery electric ships, the power for propulsion and auxiliaries comes from batteries, which are charged while at berth from the on-shore electricity grid. Given the current limitations of the energy density of batteries, battery electric ships will mostly find applications on short-distance routes.", "supplyChain": [ "Electric (vehicles)", "Electricity end use" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "In spite of the technology having a low deployment in the NZE Scenario by 2050 within the overall shipping sector, for short distance and domestic shipping it can play an important role: 3% of the energy consumption of domestic shipping by 2050 under the NZE Scenario. For example, it is a suitable technology for circulation in future zero-emissions zones on water.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Nuclear-powered ship", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Nuclear-powered ship", "name": "Nuclear-powered ship", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Propulsion" ], "description": "The first US nuclear-powered merchant ship, the N.S. Savannah, was built in 1959. Russia currently has 8 nuclear icebreakers in operation. Naval reactors currently used on ice-breakers and military ships are of the pressurised-water type. Civilian applications can run on low-enriched uranium (up to 20% in U235, to be compared to up to 5% for an on-shore nuclear power plant), which still enables a high power density and a duration of up to 10 years before refuelling. In the future, marine applications could take advantage of modern Small Modular Reactors (SMRs), like High\/Very High Temperature Reactors (HTR\/VHTR) or Molten Salt Reactors (MSR), that can have better passive safety features and can potentially eliminate the need for refuelling altogether during the life of the ship. For on-shore application, their TRL level ranges from 7-8 (for HTR) to 4-5 (MSR), with the additional challenge of adapting them to maritime operation.", "supplyChain": [ "Other" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Due to the large capital expenditure required for the initial investment and operational and maintenance costs, nuclear-powered ships have fallen short of their potential and failed to become profitable up to now. Safety, non-proliferation, nuclear waste management and decommissioning issues are major hurdles that could impede wider adoption.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Automated and connected ship", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Automated and connected ship", "name": "Automated and connected ship", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Vessel operations" ], "description": "Automated and connected ships may improve energy efficiency. Fully autonomous ships may be able to take longer voyages at lower speeds and greater fuel efficiency.", "supplyChain": [ "Other", "Digitalisation" ], "trl": [ 5, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Potential energy savings depend on the level of automation. High energy saving potentials up to 15% have been claimed by some stakeholders, but actual values in real conditions may be lower.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Dynamic route optimisation", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Dynamic route optimisation", "name": "Dynamic route optimisation", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Vessel operations" ], "description": " Traditionally, shipping routes are usually drawn up by shipping companies according to their historical navigation experience. Waves, wind and currents have an influence on the ship’s energy consumption, which can be reduced through route optimisation using algorithms that can use artificial intelligence, relying on weather forecasts, data from satellites or buoy networks.", "supplyChain": [ "Other" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "By avoiding areas with headwinds, high waves and opposite currents, energy consumption can be reduced by 4-8% in the course of a year.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Trim and draught optimisation", "breadcrumb": "Transport > Trim and draught optimisation", "name": "Trim and draught optimisation", "sector": [ "Transport", "Shipping", "Vessel operations" ], "description": "Draught measures how deep the ship is submerged into the water, and trim, the difference between bow and stern draught. Depending on the trim, the wetted surface area of the hull will be different, which affects energy consumption.", "supplyChain": [ "Other" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Actively planning cargo loading, and thereby optimising the trim and draught, can save fuel: typically 0.5-3% and up to 5% for container and Ro-Ro ships that tend to navigate in partial load conditions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Chalcogenide thin-film", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Chalcogenide thin-film", "name": "Chalcogenide thin-film", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Solar", "Photovoltaic" ], "description": "Solar cells made from semiconductor materials that combine a chalcogen element (sulfur, selenium, or tellurium) with metals. Common examples include CIGS (copper indium gallium selenide) and CdTe (cadmium telluride). These materials have strong light-absorption properties, enabling high performance with very thin layers. Chalcogenide thin-films offer high efficiency and low manufacturing costs but face challenges related to material availability, toxicity concerns (Cd), and long-term stability.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Concentrated PV", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Concentrated PV", "name": "Concentrated PV", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Solar", "Photovoltaic" ], "description": "Concentrated PV (CPV) technologies use an optical concentrator system which focuses solar radiation onto a small high-efficiency cell. CPV modules can achieve efficiencies of above 40%.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Relatively new technology, which entered the market only in the 2000s; limited to regions with high Direct Normal Irradiation (DNI).", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Crystalline silicon PV", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Crystalline silicon PV", "name": "Crystalline silicon PV", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Solar", "Photovoltaic" ], "description": "Today, the vast majority of PV modules are based on wafer-based crystalline silicon (c-Si). The manufacturing of c-Si modules typically involves growing ingots of silicon, slicing the ingots into wafers to make solar cells, electrically interconnecting the cells, and encapsulating the strings of cells to form a module. Modules currently use silicon in one of two main forms: single- (sc-Si) or multi- (mc-Si) crystalline modules. Current commercial single-crystalline modules have a higher conversion efficiency of around 14 to 20%. Their efficiency is expected to increase up to 25% in the longer term. Multi-crystalline silicon modules have a more disordered atomic structure leading to lower efficiencies, but they are less expensive. Their efficiency is expected to increase up to 21% in the long term.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "B", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Dominating solar PV technology today, already competitive today in regions with good resource conditions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Floating solar PV", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Floating solar PV", "name": "Floating solar PV", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Solar", "Photovoltaic" ], "description": "Floating PV systems are mounted on a structure that floats on a water surface and can be associated with existing grid connections, for instance in the case of dam vicinity.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "With land becoming a scarce resource, floating PV could become an alternative for areas with lakes, water reservoirs or even for the sea.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Linear fresnel reflector (solar)", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Linear fresnel reflector (solar)", "name": "Linear fresnel reflector (solar)", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Solar", "Solar thermal" ], "description": "Linear Fresnel reflectors (LFRs) approximate the parabolic shape of trough systems but by using long rows of flat or slightly curved mirrors to reflect the sun’s rays onto a downward-facing linear, fixed receiver. The main advantage of LFR systems is that their simple design of flexibly bent mirrors and fixed receivers requires lower investment costs and facilitates direct steam generation, thereby eliminating the need for – and cost of – heat transfer fluids and heat exchangers. LFR plants are, however, less efficient than troughs in converting solar energy to electricity and it is more difficult to incorporate storage capacity into their design.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Potentially lower investment costs than parabolic troughs and solar towers, but also more difficult integration of thermal storage.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Microcrystalline silicon PV cells", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Microcrystalline silicon PV cells", "name": "Microcrystalline silicon PV cells", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Solar", "Photovoltaic" ], "description": "Microcrystalline silicon (μc-Si) PV cells are a type of thin-film solar technology that uses silicon with a mixed structure of small crystalline grains embedded in an amorphous matrix. This allows better light absorption than crystalline silicon while using far less material. μc-Si cells are often combined with amorphous silicon in tandem configurations to improve efficiency. They are relatively low-cost but have lower efficiencies compared with conventional crystalline silicon modules.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Multi-junction cell PV", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Multi-junction cell PV", "name": "Multi-junction cell PV", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Solar", "Photovoltaic" ], "description": "Multi-junction cell design involves superposing several cells in a stack. In the case of two cells, it will form a double junction, also called a tandem cell. Stacking more cells together forms a triple or a quadruple junction. In all cases, the upper cell(s) must be as transparent as possible to enable the lower cells to still be active. This approach enables a broader spectrum of sunlight to be captured, and overall efficiency to be increased. III-V multi-junction cells using elements in the III and V columns of the periodic table, such as gallium indium phosphate (GaInP), gallium indium arsenide (GaInAs), and gallium arsenide (GaAs), are often used for concentrated PV applications.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Commercially available, but has relatively low market penetration today, confined to niche applications (e.g. space flight).", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Organic thin film", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Organic thin film", "name": "Organic thin film", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Solar", "Photovoltaic" ], "description": "Organic thin-film PV (OPV) cells use dye or organic semiconductors as the light-harvesting active layer. This technology has created increasing interest and research over the last few years and is currently the fastest-advancing solar technology. Despite the low production costs, stable products are not yet available for the market, nevertheless development and demonstration activities are underway.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Fast-advancing PV technology, but despite low production costs, no stable products available for the market yet.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Parabolic trough (solar)", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Parabolic trough (solar)", "name": "Parabolic trough (solar)", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Solar", "Solar thermal" ], "description": "Parabolic trough systems consist of parallel rows of mirrors (reflectors) curved in one dimension to focus the sun’s rays. Stainless steel pipes (absorber tubes) with a selective coating serve as the heat collectors and are insulated in an evacuated glass envelope. The reflectors and the absorber tubes move in tandem with the sun as it crosses the sky. A synthetic oil transfers the heat from the collector pipes to heat exchangers, producing superheated steam to run a steam turbine and produce electricity.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "High in regions with good Direct Normal Irradiation (DNI) resources, as solar thermal electricity (STE) plants in combination with thermal storage can be a dispatchable generation source, providing system services, e.g. inertia, and supporting the integration of solar PV", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Perovskite thin film", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Perovskite thin film", "name": "Perovskite thin film", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Solar", "Photovoltaic" ], "description": "A non-silicon based thin-film PV technology, which uses Perovskite, a type of mineral very good at absorbing light. In the lab, efficiencies of 25% have been reached, but so far only with small cell areas; efforts to achieve similar efficiencies have not been successful so far. Perovskite solar cells also still suffer from short durability.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Production process for larger cell areas not yet developed and cells suffer from short durability.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Solar thermal district heating", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Solar thermal district heating", "name": "Solar thermal district heating", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Solar", "Solar thermal" ], "description": "Solar district heating plants employ sizeable fields of solar thermal collectors to supply or upgrade the heat in district heating networks. The technology is highly modular, and can therefore be applied - subject to space - to district heating networks from block to city sizes. The solar collector fields can be deployed on the ground, but can also be integrated into building-roofs. The technology necessary provides only a share of all heat, which typically hovers around 10-50% of system needs. A key constraint is the space required for renewable energy such as solar thermal. In order to keep costs to a minimum, they need to be installed close to the heat consumers, where land availability is the most scarce.", "supplyChain": [ "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "B", "B", "B", "B", "B", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Solar district heating is only a complementary technology to district heating networks, but can provide benefits in niche markets in particular.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Solar tower", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Solar tower", "name": "Solar tower", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Solar", "Solar thermal" ], "description": "Solar towers, also known as central receiver systems (CRS), use hundreds or thousands of small reflectors (called heliostats) to concentrate the sun’s rays on a central receiver placed atop a fixed tower. The concentrating power of the tower concept achieves very high temperatures, thereby increasing the efficiency at which heat is converted into electricity and reducing the cost of thermal storage.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation", "Heat generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "High in regions with good Direct Normal Irradiation (DNI) resources, as solar thermal electricity (STE) plants in combination with thermal storage can provide electricity after sunset and support the integration of solar PV.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Space solar power", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Space solar power", "name": "Space solar power", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Solar", "Photovoltaic" ], "description": "It involves deploying solar panels on satellites or space-based platforms to collect solar energy outside Earth’s atmosphere, where sunlight is more intense and uninterrupted. The energy is converted into microwaves or lasers and transmitted wirelessly to receiving stations on Earth. SSP can theoretically provide constant, large-scale renewable energy but faces major technological, economic, and regulatory challenges, including launch costs, power-beaming efficiency, and safety considerations.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Biological CO2 methanation", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Biological CO2 methanation", "name": "Biological CO2 methanation", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Sythetic fuels production" ], "description": "Biological CO2 methanation converts CO2 and hydrogen into methane using methanogenic microorganisms as biological catalysts. CO2 can be sourced from industrial combustion, power generation, fermentation, anaerobic digestion or direct air capture. The process operates at mild conditions (35–70 °C and 1–10 bar) without chemical catalysts and is notably more tolerant to feedstock fluctuations and impurities than chemical methanation. This can reduce equipment requirements, energy demand and associated costs. Biological methanation also integrates effectively with anaerobic digestion by converting residual CO2 in biogas to methane and increasing its calorific value and could reduce the need for biogas upgrading. The main limitation of the biological route is the low gas‑to‑liquid mass transfer of hydrogen, which constrains space‑time yields and necessitates larger reactor volumes.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels production", "CO2 utilisation" ], "trl": [ null, null, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "CO2 methanation is particularly relevant in biogas production, where converting the biogenic CO2 fraction into methane using low-emission hydrogen can increase methane yields.  Beyond biogas upgrading, methanation can also utilise CO2 from other biogenic, unavoidable, and captured sources.  In the near term, its key advantage lies in the full compatibility of synthetic methane with existing gas infrastructure and end‑use technologies, enabling rapid integration.  Over the longer term, CO2‑derived methane may serve as an industrial feedstock in applications where low‑emissions substitutes remain limited, even as broader electrification reduces demand for methane in other sectors.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Chemical methanation", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Chemical methanation", "name": "Chemical methanation", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Sythetic fuels production" ], "description": "Chemical methanation, also known as the Sabatier reaction, converts CO, CO2 and H2 (syngas) into methane and water through catalytic hydrogenation. The reaction typically employs nickel catalysts due to their high activity, selectivity, abundance and low cost, and operates at pressures of up to 100 bar and temperatures between 150 °C and 600 °C; temperatures above this range should be avoided to prevent catalyst deactivation. The process requires a carbon source, supplied either as CO from syngas produced via biomass gasification or pyrolysis, or as CO2 from industrial combustion processes, power generation, fermentation, anaerobic digestion, or direct air capture. Methanation has long been used as a final purification step in syngas processing, and most modern ammonia plants, along with some older hydrogen plants, apply the reaction to remove residual carbon oxides from process gases.\nDespite its long industrial history, further optimisation of state of the art methanation technologies is needed, particularly for direct CO2 methanation. Current research focuses on improving catalyst performance, adapting to varying gas compositions, and enhancing operational flexibility to accommodate fluctuating hydrogen supply from renewable generation. Johnson Matthey is a leading developer of high performance catalysts for chemical methanation. This technology offers a pathway to produce low emissions methane for gas consuming applications and could provide a substitute for fossil natural gas in a low carbon energy system.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels production", "CO2 utilisation" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "CO2 methanation is particularly relevant in biogas production, where converting the biogenic CO2 fraction into methane using low-emission hydrogen can increase methane yields.  Beyond biogas upgrading, methanation can also utilise CO2 from other biogenic, unavoidable, and captured sources.  In the near term, its key advantage lies in the full compatibility of synthetic methane with existing gas infrastructure and end‑use technologies, enabling rapid integration.  Over the longer term, CO2‑derived methane may serve as an industrial feedstock in applications where low‑emissions substitutes remain limited, even as broader electrification reduces demand for methane in other sectors.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "CO2 and H2O co-electrolysis", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > CO2 and H2O co-electrolysis", "name": "CO2 and H2O co-electrolysis", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Sythetic fuels production", "Liquid fuels" ], "description": "Synthetic liquid hydrocarbons can be produced via Fischer–Tropsch (FT) synthesis using syngas generated through co electrolysis of CO2 and H2O in solid oxide electrolyser cells (SOECs). Co electrolysis can be directly integrated with the FT unit, enabling high temperature heat exchange, lowering operating costs and improving efficiency. The process produces a syngas stream suitable for FT synthesis, typically adjusted to a H2\/CO ratio of around 2–2.2. FT synthesis then proceeds over iron or cobalt based catalysts, with low temperature operation (200–250 °C) favouring long chain hydrocarbons for jet and diesel fuels and high temperature operation (320–375 °C) yielding shorter chain products such as light olefins. Primary 1 alkenes undergo secondary reactions to form a broader distribution of paraffinic hydrocarbons, and the resulting synthetic crude can be refined using established petroleum processes.\nDespite these integration benefits, co electrolysis faces several limitations compared with the more established FT route using a reverse water gas shift (RWGS) reactor. These include challenges in matching SOEC efficiency and durability with the high yield conditions required for FT synthesis, the lower technology readiness level of co-electrolysis, and limited experience with CO2 fed FT systems and catalyst performance. Consequently, most planned power to liquid FT projects continue to rely on RWGS for converting CO2 to CO prior to synthesis.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels production", "CO2 utilisation", "Synthetic fuels" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "In sectors that are difficult to electrify directly, particularly long distance aviation, shipping, and the production of chemical feedstocks, synthetic hydrocarbons may be one of the few viable options for decarbonisation, given the limited availability of sustainable biofuels.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "CO2-to-liquids (integrated RWGS + fischer–tropsch process)", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > CO2-to-liquids (integrated RWGS + fischer–tropsch process)", "name": "CO2-to-liquids (integrated RWGS + fischer–tropsch process)", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Sythetic fuels production", "Liquid fuels" ], "description": "Synthetic liquid hydrocarbons can be produced through Fischer–Tropsch (FT) synthesis, which converts carbon monoxide and hydrogen into longer‑chain hydrocarbons. When CO2 is the carbon source, it must first be converted into CO through the reverse water–gas shift (RWGS) reaction, in which CO2 reacts with hydrogen at high temperatures to form CO and water. This step enables CO2to be used for FT synthesis by producing a suitable syngas mixture, typically adjusted to a H2\/CO ratio of around 2–2.2. FT synthesis then proceeds over iron‑ or cobalt‑based catalysts, with reaction temperature strongly influencing the product slate. Low‑temperature FT (200–250 °C) favours long‑chain hydrocarbons appropriate for jet and diesel fuels, while high‑temperature FT (320–375 °C) produces shorter‑chain molecules such as light olefins. Primary products are largely 1‑alkenes, which undergo secondary reactions, including hydrogenation, isomerisation and cyclisation, to generate a broader distribution of paraffinic hydrocarbons. The resulting synthetic crude can be refined using established petroleum processes to produce jet fuel, naphtha and other products. FT synthesis is one of the most commercially established pathway for synthetic jet fuel production, with multiple ASTM‑certified routes and decades of deployment in gas‑to‑liquids and coal‑to‑liquids facilities. Although RWGS is less mature within low‑emissions FT supply chains, its technical viability at scale has been demonstrated in several e‑fuels projects, particularly in Northern Europe.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels production", "CO2 utilisation", "Synthetic fuels" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "In sectors that are difficult to electrify directly, particularly long distance aviation, shipping, and the production of chemical feedstocks, synthetic hydrocarbons may be one of the few viable options for decarbonisation, given the limited availability of sustainable biofuels.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Direct CO2 to dimethyl ether", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Direct CO2 to dimethyl ether", "name": "Direct CO2 to dimethyl ether", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Sythetic fuels production" ], "description": "Dimethyl ether (DME) is used in the chemical industry and as an aerosol propellant, and is increasingly being explored as a low emissions fuel. At ambient conditions it is a gas with handling requirements similar to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). DME can serve as a feedstock for chemical production, substitute for LPG in blends of up to around 20% without equipment modifications, and operate in compression ignition engines with adjustments to fuel systems. It offers several favourable fuel properties, including a high cetane number, clean combustion due to the absence of carbon–carbon bonds, and significantly lower particulate and NOₓ emissions than conventional diesel. Current DME synthesis pathways include a two step route, in which syngas is first converted to methanol and then dehydrated to DME, and a direct single reactor process that produces DME from syngas in one step. Research efforts now focus on replacing syngas with low-emissions CO2 and hydrogen. Direct CO2 to DME conversion requires improved bifunctional catalysts capable of promoting CO2 hydrogenation to methanol and its subsequent dehydration, alongside methods for in situ water removal to enhance conversion efficiency. DME can also be used as an intermediate for producing longer‑chain hydrocarbons, offering a parallel route to established pathways such as methanol synthesis and Fischer–Tropsch synthesis.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels production", "CO2 utilisation", "Synthetic fuels" ], "trl": [ null, null, 3, 3, 3, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "In sectors that are difficult to electrify directly, particularly long distance aviation, shipping, and the production of chemical feedstocks, synthetic hydrocarbons may be one of the few viable options for decarbonisation, given the limited availability of sustainable biofuels.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Methanol-to-jet", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Methanol-to-jet", "name": "Methanol-to-jet", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Sythetic fuels production", "Liquid fuels" ], "description": "Synthetic hydrocarbon fuels, including synthetic jet fuel, produced from hydrogen and CO2 via the methanol pathway involve four main steps: methanol synthesis, methanol-to-olefins, oligomerisation, and hydrogenation. Hydrogen and CO2 react exothermically over a copper-based catalyst at 220–280 °C and 30–80 bar to form methanol and water. The purified methanol is then converted into light olefins over a zeotype catalyst at 400–500 °C and 1–3 bar. Olefins in the C2–C6 range are separated from lighter and heavier components and oligomerised over a solid acid catalyst at 200–250 °C and 30–50 bar to increase hydrocarbon chain length to levels required for desirable combustion properties in the synthetic jet fuel range. The resulting olefinic stream is mixed with hydrogen and hydrogenated over a reduced metal catalyst at 100–250 °C and 20–50 bar to saturate double bonds, with excess hydrogen cooled, recovered, and recycled for the process. The final product, consisting mainly of C8–C_16 hydrocarbons, is separated from lighter and heavier fractions using standard distillation.\nUnlike established SAF production routes such as HEFA or Fischer–Tropsch (FT) synthesis, methanol-to-jet-based SAF is not yet approved under ASTM specifications for use as a drop-in fuel. Three main technology providers currently offer integrated methanol-to-jet conversion processes: ExxonMobil, Honeywell UOP, and Topsoe. Testing under ASTM D4054 for the methanol-to-jet pathway is progressing using fuel volumes supplied by these providers.\nSeveral opportunities arise from the methanol-to-jet (MTJ) process, particularly when compared with synthetic hydrocarbon production via FT synthesis. First, methanol can be produced from both CO and CO2, allowing direct utilisation of CO2 without the need for a reverse water–gas shift step or co-electrolysis. Second, the potential for dynamic operation of methanol synthesis offers a more direct and flexible link between variable renewable electricity and jet fuel production. Third, MTJ can deliver high jet fuel yields with low levels of by-product formation, in contrast to FT systems where the formation of light hydrocarbons, including methane, can be significant. Finally, MTJ provides a viable alternative to FT that expands synthetic hydrocarbon supply options and reduces dependence on the FT technology chain.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels production", "CO2 utilisation", "Synthetic fuels" ], "trl": [ 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "In sectors that are difficult to electrify directly, particularly long distance aviation, shipping, and the production of chemical feedstocks, synthetic hydrocarbons may be one of the few viable options for decarbonisation, given the limited availability of sustainable biofuels.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Solar fuels", "breadcrumb": "Hydrogen > Solar fuels", "name": "Solar fuels", "sector": [ "Hydrogen", "Sythetic fuels production", "Liquid fuels" ], "description": "Solar fuels are produced by converting solar energy directly into chemical molecules that can be used as fuels or chemical feedstocks. These processes typically use combinations of carbon dioxide, water and nitrogen as starting inputs to produce intermediates such as hydrogen, ammonia or carbon-based molecules, which can subsequently be upgraded into drop-in fuels or commodity chemicals. Solar fuel pathways are generally categorised into photochemical and photobiological routes, which use solar photons to drive reactions, and thermochemical routes, which rely on concentrated solar heat at moderate to very high temperatures to enable thermochemical splitting of H2O and CO2 based on redox cycles. While some definitions also include indirect pathways that first convert solar energy into electricity or biomass, the term solar fuels here refers only to direct conversion routes aimed at maximising solar-to-fuel efficiency. Photochemical and photobiological approaches remain at laboratory scale and are primarily the focus of research and development, whereas solar thermochemical routes have reached pilot and demonstration scale.\nIn solar thermochemical systems, a solar field of mirrors (heliostats) concentrates and focuses sunlight onto a central tower receiver to heat a solar reactor, reaching temperatures of up to around 1500 °C that drive high-temperature redox reactions splitting H2O and CO2 into syngas (CO and H2). Multiple solar reactor designs, heat transfer media and high-temperature thermal storage concepts are under development to improve efficiency, durability and cycling stability; particularly, the thermochemical splitting reactor is a key focus of ongoing innovation. Direct thermolysis of CO2 and H2O would require temperatures above 3000 °C, making multistep thermochemical cycles based on redox materials the preferred approach. In these cycles, a metal oxide is first reduced endothermically using concentrated solar heat, releasing oxygen and creating an oxygen-deficient material; it is then re-oxidised exothermically with H2O and\/or CO2 to produce H2 and\/or CO while regenerating the original oxide. \nFor example, Synhelion uses paired solar reactors that operate alternately: one reactor is exposed to concentrated sunlight to provide the heat required for the endothermic reduction step of the redox cycle, while the other operates without direct solar input to complete the exothermic oxidation step and release the product gases.", "supplyChain": [ "Hydrogen-based fuels production", "CO2 utilisation", "Synthetic fuels" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Solar fuel technologies remain at an early stage of development but may have a larger role in the longer tem. By converting sunlight directly into fuels and chemical feedstocks, they aim to maximise solar-to-fuel efficiency, minimise land use compared with both biomass-based pathways and indirect PV-based synthetic fuel routes, and enable more decentralised production in high-solar-resource regions.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Chemical reaction storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Chemical reaction storage", "name": "Chemical reaction storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Thermochemical heat storage" ], "description": "Thermo-chemical heat storage relies on reversive exo\/endotherm reactions to chemically store heat in a material. Thermal energy is used to dissociate compounds (“AB”) into two reaction products (“A” and “B”). Upon subsequent recombination of the reactants, an exothermic reverse reaction occurs and the previously-stored heat of reaction is released. This allows for the theoretically lossless storage of thermal energy, potentially at high temperature depending on the selected reactants. ", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "A higher integration of variable renewable energy will call for a flexible integration of power and heating systems, and thermal energy storage offer means to also decarobinize the heating demand, including higher-temperature heating demands.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "High-temperature latent heat storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > High-temperature latent heat storage", "name": "High-temperature latent heat storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Latent heat storage" ], "description": "Latent heat storage (LHS) takes advantage of the energy absorbed or released at constant temperature during a phase change of the material. In most cases, solid\/liquid phase change is utilised, with melting used to store heat and solidification used to release heat. Applications in the power sector are solar thermal power plants, allowing the plant to provide electricity after sunset. Salt hydrate and paraffin wax systems are partly commercialised for temperatures below 100 °C (TRL 6-8). High-temperature LHS with integrated finned-tube heat exchangers has been constructed and operated with variable phase-change temperatures between 140 °C and 305 °C (TRL 7).", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "A higher integration of variable renewable energy will call for a flexible integration of power and heating systems, and thermal energy storage offer means to also decarobinize the heating demand, including higher-temperature heating demands.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ice storage (latent heat)", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Ice storage (latent heat)", "name": "Ice storage (latent heat)", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Latent heat storage" ], "description": "Latent heat storage (LHS) takes advantage of the energy absorbed or released at constant temperature during a phase change of the material. In most cases, solid\/liquid phase change is utilised, with melting used to store heat and solidification used to release heat. For low temperature storage, water (ice storages) and aqueous salt solutions (for temperatures below 0 °C) have been commercialised and deployed on a large scale, e.g. the phase change of water at 0 °C is used for storage of cold for air conditioning and supply of process cold. Many low-temperature products using latent heat technology in buildings, mini-storage for food, and cooling for medication have been commercialised.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "A higher integration of variable renewable energy will call for a flexible integration of power and heating systems, and thermal energy storage offer means to also decarobinize the heating demand, including higher-temperature heating demands.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Low-temperature latent heat storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Low-temperature latent heat storage", "name": "Low-temperature latent heat storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Latent heat storage" ], "description": "Latent heat is stored using phase-change materials that take advantage of the (specific) latent heat associated with a phase transition, generally from solid to liquid to the other, though this is not as efficient at high temperatures. Phase-change materials are appealing because of their high energy storage density.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 7, 7, 7 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "A higher integration of variable renewable energy will increase the need of flexibility and energy storage. While Li-ion batteries have been largely deployed, issues around costs and a more limited lithium availability, call for alternative technologies. In addition, sometimes excess heat may be available.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Metal as energy carrier", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Metal as energy carrier", "name": "Metal as energy carrier", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Thermochemical heat storage" ], "description": "When oxidised, metals release a vast quantity of thermal energy. In a powder form, iron or aluminium could be used as energy carriers to produce high temperature heat for industry or for power production on demand. After the reaction, the oxidised metals can be recovered and remade into their pure form using renewable energy, completing the cycle. The advantage of such energy carrier is their density, the safety of handling and already existing infrastructure. To note that certain reactions can produce more than heat, for instance aluminium and water react to create heat and hydrogen than can be harnessed for further use. ", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Molten metal storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Molten metal storage", "name": "Molten metal storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Sensible heat storage" ], "description": "For very high temperature thermal energy storage, molten metal can be an alternative to solid storage. Temperatures vell above 1000°C can be reached using high-temperature resilient materials like graphite to contain and pump the liquid metal. Those high temperatures offer an advantage, the radiation emitted at such temperature can be converted directly into electricity using thermophotovoltaic cells, avoiding the need for vapour generation and turbines used in other systems. ", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "A higher integration of variable renewable energy will call for a flexible integration of power and heating systems, and thermal energy storage offer means to also decarbonise the heating demand, including higher-temperature heating demands.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Molten salts storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Molten salts storage", "name": "Molten salts storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Sensible heat storage" ], "description": "Energy is used to heat the storage medium, such as molten salt, without changing its phase, where it is stored as heat and used when needed. Electricity can be generated by using the heat stored in the molten salt to produce steam to drive a turbine. The period during which the system provides full rated output can range from eight to 24 hours or more. Molten salts are inorganic chemical compounds, typically a mixture of nitrate\/nitrite salts (e.g. a mixture of potassium and sodium nitrate), which have high boiling points, low viscosity, low vapour pressure and high volumetric heat capacities, i.e. they require a relatively small storage tank. When selecting the chemical mixture, it is advantageous to have the lowest possible melting point and the highest possible boiling point to maximise the available temperature range for the molten salt. Salts that would normally be solid at ambient temperatures are maintained at temperatures above their melting points so that they are always in liquid, i.e. molten, form and can be heated to around 560°C. The efficiency of the system is maximised at higher temperatures, but the maximum operating temperature is limited by various factors such as corrosion, salt decomposition and salt vapour pressure. Molten salt storage is often associated with concentrated solar power (CSP) plants. The first large-scale implementation of this technology was the Andasol 1 CSP plant in Spain, which became operational in 2008. This was soon followed by Andasol 2 and Andasol 3 in 2009 and 2011 respectively. The storage system uses a mixture of 60% sodium nitrate and 40% potassium nitrate as the storage medium, and the three plants have a storage capacity of 1 010 MWh and 120 MW. Molten salts can also be used as stand-alone bulk thermal storage, known as Carnot batteries, where electricity is used to generate heat via a heat pump, which is stored in the molten salt and then connected to a turbine, which may be an existing one in a fossil fuel power station. Further research is aimed at reducing overall costs, in particular improving efficiency by increasing the operating temperature range of the molten salt.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, 7, 7, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "A higher integration of variable renewable energy will increase the need of flexibility and energy storage. While Li-ion batteries have been largely deployed, issues around costs and a more limited lithium availability, call for alternative technologies. In addition, sometimes excess heat may be available.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Solids storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Solids storage", "name": "Solids storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Sensible heat storage" ], "description": "Energy is used to heat a solid storage medium, such as rocks, pebbles, metals or other refractory materials, without changing its phase, where it is stored as heat and used as heat or electricity when needed. The storage unit is packed with the solid storage medium through which a heat transfer fluid is circulated and can be used up to high temperatures (around 600°C). Solid storage media are considered mainly for cost reasons, as the cost of an equivalent mass of solid materials can be one or even two orders of magnitude lower than that of molten salts. Some solid storage materials also have a wider operating temperature range, freezing is not an issue, evaporation or leakage is not a problem. However, heating the solid is usually more difficult than heating a liquid such as a molten salt. A wide range of materials can be used as solid media storage. Any suitable candidate materials must be chemically and thermally stable and should be applicable over a wide temperature range. The maximum application temperature depends on the specific material and can be over 1000°C for ceramics such as magnesia bricks.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "A higher integration of variable renewable energy will call for a flexible integration of power and heating systems, and thermal energy storage offer means to also decarbonise the heating demand, including higher-temperature heating demands.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Sorption process storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Sorption process storage", "name": "Sorption process storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Thermochemical heat storage" ], "description": "Sorption processes can be used to absorb and release heat through adsorption (physical bonding) and absorption (uptake\/dissolution of a material). In adsorption, the reactants (e.g. zeolite and water) are separated during charging and the heat of reaction is released after recombination. The sorption principle can be applied for thermal energy storage as well as for chemical heat pumps. Whereas sorption heat pumps are commercially available, sorption-based thermal energy storage with discharging cycles of more than 1 hour are still in research and development. ", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "A higher integration of variable renewable energy will call for a flexible integration of power and heating systems, and thermal energy storage offer means to also decarobinize the heating demand, including higher-temperature heating demands.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Active latent heat storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Active latent heat storage", "name": "Active latent heat storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Building-level thermal storage", "Latent heat (phase change material)" ], "description": "Active latent heat storage systems store thermal energy using phase change materials while incorporating dedicated heat transfer components inside the storage unit. Unlike passive latent heat storage, where heat simply flows through the storage material, active systems integrate heat exchangers, pipes or other transfer devices within the storage volume. This configuration allows better control over how quickly heat can be charged or discharged from the storage system. Because the design separates the energy capacity of the storage from the power at which heat can be delivered, these systems allow greater flexibility in sizing and operation compared with conventional thermal storage technologies.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Improves flexibility of thermal energy storage in buildings by allowing independent control of storage capacity and heat delivery rates.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Aquifer thermal energy storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Aquifer thermal energy storage", "name": "Aquifer thermal energy storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "District level thermal networks and storage" ], "description": "Aquifer thermal energy storage systems store thermal energy in underground water-bearing geological formations known as aquifers. These systems typically operate with two wells, one used to inject warm water and another to extract it later. During warm periods, excess heat from buildings or other sources is stored underground by injecting warm water into the aquifer. During colder periods, this stored heat can be recovered and used for building heating. The process can also be reversed to store cold water for cooling applications. Because groundwater temperatures remain relatively stable and aquifers can store large volumes of water, these systems are well suited for seasonal thermal energy storage at the scale of districts or building clusters.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Enables large-scale seasonal storage of heating or cooling energy, supporting efficient operation of district energy systems and low-carbon heating in buildings.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Borehole thermal energy storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Borehole thermal energy storage", "name": "Borehole thermal energy storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "District level thermal networks and storage" ], "description": "Borehole thermal energy storage systems store heat in the ground using a network of vertical boreholes drilled into the subsurface. Each borehole contains a closed-loop pipe through which a heat transfer fluid circulates. During charging periods, heat from buildings or renewable sources is transferred to the ground through the fluid and stored in the surrounding soil and rock. During discharge, the process is reversed and the stored heat is extracted and delivered to buildings, often with the help of heat pumps. Large fields can contain dozens to hundreds of boreholes, allowing the ground to act as a seasonal heat reservoir for heating systems.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Provides seasonal thermal energy storage for buildings and district heating systems, helping balance heat supply and demand over long time periods.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Chilled water storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Chilled water storage", "name": "Chilled water storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Building-level thermal storage" ], "description": "Chilled water storage systems store cooling energy in the form of cold water that can later be used for air conditioning. During charging periods, typically when electricity demand is low or electricity prices are cheaper, a chiller cools water and stores it in a large insulated tank. When cooling demand increases, the stored chilled water is circulated through the building’s cooling system to absorb heat from indoor spaces. Because water has a relatively high heat capacity and storage tanks can be built at large scale, these systems can store significant amounts of cooling energy and release it during peak demand periods.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Reduces peak electricity demand for cooling in buildings by shifting part of the cooling load to off-peak periods through thermal energy storage.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Combined latent and sensible storage system", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Combined latent and sensible storage system", "name": "Combined latent and sensible storage system", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Building-level thermal storage" ], "description": "Combined latent and sensible storage systems store thermal energy using both conventional heat storage materials and phase change materials within the same system. In these systems, a phase change material is encapsulated within a medium that also has high sensible heat capacity, such as concrete or other solid materials. Sensible storage stores heat by increasing the temperature of the material, while latent storage stores heat during a phase change at nearly constant temperature. By combining these two mechanisms, the system can increase the amount of thermal energy stored within the same volume. In some designs, this combination can increase storage density by two to three times compared with systems that rely on a single storage mechanism.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Enhances thermal storage capacity in buildings and energy systems by combining multiple heat storage mechanisms within a single system.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Electrical storage for building systems integration", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Electrical storage for building systems integration", "name": "Electrical storage for building systems integration", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Building-level thermal storage" ], "description": "Electrical storage in buildings typically relies on electrochemical batteries that store energy through reversible chemical reactions. Technologies used in buildings include lithium-ion batteries, solid-state batteries and redox flow batteries, each with different characteristics in terms of energy density, lifetime and scalability. Batteries can store electricity generated on site, for example from photovoltaic systems, and release it later when demand increases. In some cases, electric vehicles connected to buildings can also act as temporary storage through vehicle-to-grid or vehicle-to-building operation, allowing electricity stored in the vehicle battery to support building loads. Although effective for storing electricity, battery storage often involves conversion losses and is generally more costly than thermal storage for many building energy applications.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "A", "B" ], "adoption_stage": "B", "NZErationale": "Provides electrical flexibility in buildings by storing electricity and enabling better integration of on-site renewable energy systems.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Hot water tank", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Hot water tank", "name": "Hot water tank", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Building-level thermal storage" ], "description": "Hot water tanks store heated water for domestic uses such as showers, washing and space heating systems. The tank is typically insulated to reduce heat losses and connected to a heat source such as a boiler, heat pump, solar thermal collector or electric heater. Water is heated and stored in the tank so that it can be delivered on demand when needed. In building energy systems, hot water tanks also act as simple thermal storage units, allowing heat to be produced at one time and used later. This storage function can help smooth heating demand and enable better integration of intermittent energy sources such as solar thermal or heat pumps operating during periods of lower electricity prices.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "C", "C", "C", "C", "C", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Provides low-cost thermal energy storage in buildings, helping balance heat production and demand while supporting efficient operation of heating systems.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ice slurry thermal storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Ice slurry thermal storage", "name": "Ice slurry thermal storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Building-level thermal storage", "Latent heat (phase change material)" ], "description": "Ice slurry thermal storage stores cooling energy using a mixture of small ice crystals suspended in water or in a water-based solution. The slurry behaves like a fluid that can be pumped through pipes while carrying a large amount of stored cooling energy. Cooling energy is stored by freezing part of the water during periods of low electricity demand, and the mixture is later circulated to absorb heat from buildings when cooling is needed. Because the phase change from water to ice stores large amounts of latent heat, ice slurry systems can achieve much higher energy storage density than chilled water systems, while also allowing rapid heat transfer due to the circulation of the slurry.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Provides efficient thermal storage for cooling in buildings, helping shift cooling demand and reduce peak electricity consumption.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Ice thermal storage in buildings", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Ice thermal storage in buildings", "name": "Ice thermal storage in buildings", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Building-level thermal storage", "Latent heat (phase change material)" ], "description": "Ice thermal storage systems store cooling energy by freezing water in insulated tanks and using the stored ice later for air conditioning. During charging periods, typically at night when electricity demand and prices are lower, chillers remove heat from water to form ice. During discharge, the ice melts and absorbs heat from the building’s chilled water system, providing cooling during peak demand periods. Because the phase change from ice to water stores large amounts of latent heat, these systems can deliver high cooling capacity within a relatively compact volume compared with conventional chilled water storage.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Enhances flexibility of building cooling systems by shifting cooling demand away from peak electricity periods and reducing pressure on the electricity grid.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Liquid-gaseous thermal storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Liquid-gaseous thermal storage", "name": "Liquid-gaseous thermal storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Building-level thermal storage", "Latent heat (phase change material)" ], "description": "Liquid-gaseous thermal storage stores heat through a phase change between the liquid and gaseous states of a material. During charging, heat is used to vaporise the liquid, absorbing a large amount of thermal energy. During discharge, the vapour condenses back into liquid, releasing this stored heat at nearly constant temperature. This phase change allows large quantities of heat to be stored relative to the volume of material used. However, the transition between liquid and gas involves very large changes in volume or high operating pressures, which makes system design more complex compared with other thermal storage technologies.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Offers high energy density thermal storage, but practical deployment in buildings is limited by system complexity and the challenges associated with large phase change volume variations.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Macroencapsulated PCM modules in heat exchangers \/ air-handling units", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Macroencapsulated PCM modules in heat exchangers \/ air-handling units", "name": "Macroencapsulated PCM modules in heat exchangers \/ air-handling units", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Building-level thermal storage", "Latent heat (phase change material)" ], "description": "Macroencapsulated phase change material modules store thermal energy by using materials that absorb or release heat when they change phase, typically from solid to liquid. In these systems, the phase change material is sealed inside containers or capsules that are integrated into heat exchangers or air-handling units. Common materials include salt hydrates or paraffins, enclosed in polymer or aluminium shells to prevent leakage and increase durability. When air or water passes through the system, the phase change material absorbs heat during melting and releases it during solidification, allowing the system to store and release thermal energy at nearly constant temperature. The modules are often stacked to increase the available heat exchange surface and improve storage performance.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Provides thermal energy storage within building ventilation and heat exchange systems, helping shift heating or cooling demand and reduce peak energy loads.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "PCM heat batteries for domestic hot water\/space heating", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > PCM heat batteries for domestic hot water\/space heating", "name": "PCM heat batteries for domestic hot water\/space heating", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Building-level thermal storage", "Latent heat (phase change material)" ], "description": "PCM heat batteries store thermal energy using phase change materials that absorb and release heat as they transition between solid and liquid states. These systems typically use materials such as paraffins or salt hydrates that melt at temperatures suitable for domestic hot water or low-temperature space heating. Heat from sources such as heat pumps, boilers or solar energy can be stored when available and released later when heat demand increases. Because the material stores energy during the phase change process, large amounts of heat can be stored in a relatively compact volume compared with conventional hot water storage tanks.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Provides compact thermal storage for buildings, helping shift heating demand and improve the integration of heat pumps and renewable heat sources.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Pit thermal energy storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Pit thermal energy storage", "name": "Pit thermal energy storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "District level thermal networks and storage" ], "description": "Pit thermal energy storage systems store heat in large reservoirs of water built below ground level. The storage structure is typically excavated in the soil and lined with an impermeable membrane and insulation layers to limit heat losses. The pit is then filled with water and covered with a floating insulated lid to further reduce thermal losses. Heat from sources such as solar thermal collectors, district heating systems or industrial processes is stored in the water during charging periods and later extracted for heating use. Because the storage volume can be very large, often tens of thousands to several hundred thousand cubic metres, pit storage systems can store heat over seasonal time scales.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Provides large-scale seasonal heat storage that supports district heating systems and improves the integration of renewable heat sources.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Sand thermal battery", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Sand thermal battery", "name": "Sand thermal battery", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "District level thermal networks and storage" ], "description": "Sand thermal batteries store energy in the form of heat within large volumes of sand or similar granular materials such as crushed rock. Surplus electricity, often from renewable sources like wind or solar, is converted into heat using electric resistance heaters. Heated air is then circulated through the sand, raising its temperature and storing thermal energy within the material. Because sand can withstand high temperatures and has relatively low cost, large quantities of heat can be stored for long periods. In well-insulated systems the stored heat can remain available for days or even weeks, and can later be used to produce hot air, hot water or steam for district heating or industrial applications at temperatures typically ranging from about 60 °C up to around 400 °C.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Provides large-scale thermal storage that can convert excess renewable electricity into usable heat for buildings and district heating systems.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Shape-stabilised phase change material (ss-PCM)", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Shape-stabilised phase change material (ss-PCM)", "name": "Shape-stabilised phase change material (ss-PCM)", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Building-level thermal storage", "Latent heat (phase change material)" ], "description": "Shape-stabilised phase change materials store thermal energy by absorbing and releasing heat during the transition between solid and liquid states. In these materials, the phase change component is embedded within a solid supporting structure that prevents the material from flowing when it melts. This stabilised structure allows the material to maintain its shape while undergoing repeated phase changes. By storing heat as latent energy during melting and releasing it during solidification, these materials can act as passive thermal batteries within building components. Some advanced shape-stabilised phase change materials are able to store up to five times more thermal energy than conventional phase change materials, increasing the amount of heat that can be stored within the same volume.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ null, null, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Enhances thermal energy storage in buildings by increasing the amount of heat that can be stored within building materials or storage systems.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Solid-solid thermal storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Solid-solid thermal storage", "name": "Solid-solid thermal storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Building-level thermal storage", "Latent heat (phase change material)" ], "description": "Solid-solid thermal storage stores heat through a change in the internal crystalline structure of a solid material rather than through melting or vaporisation. When heat is added, the material undergoes a structural transformation that absorbs thermal energy. When the material returns to its original structure, the stored heat is released. Because the material remains in the solid state throughout the process, there is no large volume change as seen in liquid or gaseous phase transitions. A wide range of materials can exhibit these solid-solid transformations, allowing storage systems to operate across a very broad temperature range, from about −100 °C up to around 1 000 °C. However, heat transfer and transformation rates are typically slower than in liquid-solid phase change materials.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Provides a stable form of latent heat storage that avoids the volume changes associated with liquid or gaseous phase transitions in thermal storage systems.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Tank thermal energy storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Tank thermal energy storage", "name": "Tank thermal energy storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "District level thermal networks and storage" ], "description": "Tank thermal energy storage systems store thermal energy in large insulated tanks filled with water. Heat is added to the tank when energy is available, for example from solar thermal collectors, boilers, heat pumps or combined heat and power systems. The hot water remains stored until heat is required, at which point it is circulated to supply space heating, domestic hot water or district heating networks. Because water has a high heat capacity and tanks can be built at very large scale, these systems can store substantial amounts of heat for hours or days. Tanks are commonly constructed from reinforced concrete or steel and can reach capacities of thousands of cubic metres in large district energy applications.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Provides flexible thermal storage that helps balance heat production and demand in building and district heating systems.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Thermo-chemical storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Thermo-chemical storage", "name": "Thermo-chemical storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Building-level thermal storage" ], "description": "Thermo-chemical storage stores heat through reversible chemical reactions. During the charging phase, thermal energy is used to split a compound (AB) into two separate products (A and B). These products can then be stored without significant heat losses because the energy is stored in the chemical bonds rather than as temperature. When heat is required again, the substances are recombined and the reverse reaction releases the stored heat. Because the reactants can be stored separately without continuous insulation, thermo-chemical storage has the potential to store heat for very long periods with minimal losses. The technology is being explored for compact and seasonal thermal storage systems in buildings.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Thermo-chemical storage could provide high-density thermal energy storage with minimal losses, supporting flexibility in heating systems and integration of renewable heat sources.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Underground cavern thermal energy storage", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Underground cavern thermal energy storage", "name": "Underground cavern thermal energy storage", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "District level thermal networks and storage" ], "description": "Underground cavern thermal energy storage stores large amounts of heat in underground cavities filled with hot water. These caverns can be natural formations, such as salt caverns, or excavated spaces in rock or former mines. Heat produced from district heating plants, industrial waste heat or renewable sources is injected into the cavern and stored for long periods, often months. Because the surrounding rock provides natural insulation and the storage volume can be very large, these systems can store significant amounts of thermal energy for seasonal use. Cavern storage is typically implemented at district scale, where heat collected during periods of low demand can later be supplied to buildings during colder months.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ null, null, null, null, null, 9 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, "A" ], "adoption_stage": "A", "NZErationale": "Provides large-scale seasonal heat storage that helps balance heat supply and demand in district heating systems and supports the use of renewable and waste heat.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Vacuum-insulated high-temperature water tank", "breadcrumb": "Energy networks and storage > Vacuum-insulated high-temperature water tank", "name": "Vacuum-insulated high-temperature water tank", "sector": [ "Energy networks and storage", "Thermal storage", "Building-level thermal storage" ], "description": "Vacuum-insulated high-temperature water tanks store thermal energy by heating a solid storage medium with electricity and retaining the heat inside a highly insulated enclosure. The system typically uses electric resistance heating to charge the storage unit and can draw up to around 20 kW of electrical power during operation. The storage medium is enclosed within a vacuum-insulated structure that reduces heat losses, allowing the stored heat to be maintained over long periods. Heat is transferred to a building distribution system operating at temperatures of around 90 °C through an integrated heat exchanger. A typical domestic unit can be about 1 metre wide and 2 metres high, with a mass of roughly 1.5 tonnes due to the dense storage material.", "supplyChain": [ "Thermal energy storage", "Heat storage" ], "trl": [ 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Provides thermal energy storage for buildings that can shift electricity consumption and reduce peak demand in heating systems.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Airborne wind energy system", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Airborne wind energy system", "name": "Airborne wind energy system", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Wind" ], "description": "Airborne wind energy systems (AWES) convert wind energy into electricity through autonomous kites or unmanned aircraft, linked to the ground by one or more tethers. There is a diversity of designs of AWES but these can be broadly categorised as either lift type devices creating torque on a ground generator via their tether, or drag type devices with airborne generators and conductive tethers. AWES offer several potential advantages over conventional wind turbines. They require less material than tower-based turbines, have the potential to be manufactured at lower cost, can be deployed faster and can harness stronger and steadier winds by flying at higher altitudes. AWES technologies are at varying stages of maturity for a variety of applications ranging from small scale off-grid power provision in remote locations to large scale offshore power production.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Airborne Wind Energy Systems (AWES) at offshore platforms could become an alternative to offshore wind turbines, but so far there is limited experience and lack of operational reliability.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Floating offshore wind turbine", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Floating offshore wind turbine", "name": "Floating offshore wind turbine", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Wind" ], "description": "Compared with mainstream offshore fixed structure mounted turbines, floating offshore wind turbines have no foundation on the sea-floor, but are instead based on either floating (barge), semi-submersible, tension leg or spar platforms, kept in place by different mooring and anchoring systems. Floating offshore turbines offer the potential for lower seabed impact, simplified installation and decommissioning, and access to additional wind resource at water depths exceeding 50 to 60 metres. Floating platforms may also be attractive for mid-depth projects, where saturation of onshore or near-shore potential or the possibility of standardising floating platform designs do not necessarily need heavy-lift vessels to transport platforms or install turbine towers and nacelles. They may therefore ultimately permit greater upscaling of wind turbines than seabed fixed technology.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 7, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "It is important to develop floating offshore to reach more distant offshore resources.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Offshore renewable hydrogen production", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Offshore renewable hydrogen production", "name": "Offshore renewable hydrogen production", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Wind" ], "description": "Offshore wind energy can become a source for hydrogen production in regions with good resource conditions. Instead of transporting the electricity via cable to an onshore electrolyser, hydrogen can be produced offshore, with the hydrogen being transported through a pipeline to the coast. Advantages of offshore hydrogen production are the lower costs and better reliability of pipelines compared to cables. In addition to the electrolyser, offshore hydrogen production also requires a seawater desalination unit. Various approaches are being explored, from retrofitting an electrolyser to an oil and gas platform, over using a man-made island or a new platform close to the wind farm, to integration of the electrolyser and the desalination unit into the wind turbine.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ null, null, 3, 5, 5, 5 ], "post_index": [ null, null, null, null, null, null ], "adoption_stage": null, "NZErationale": "Potential to minimise environmental impacts, since offshore pipelines can transport significantly larger amounts of energy than a cable and thus can have fewer impacts on coastal areas than cables. Existing offshore natural gas pipelines could be also repurposed for hydrogen transport. Developing electrolyser and desalination systems that can withstand offshore conditions and integrating them on platforms or wind turbines is one of the main development challenges.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Onshore wind", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Onshore wind", "name": "Onshore wind", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Wind" ], "description": "Wind turbines harness the kinetic energy of wind to produce electricity. The rotor converts the wind energy into rotational energy, which is then used in a generator to produce electricity. Onshore wind turbines are located on land in almost all kinds of locations and regions – at the coast, in flat and complex terrain, in hot and cold climates, forests and deserts – and are an established innovative technology, still growing in size, performance and ancillary services capabilities.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "B", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": "Onshore wind remains an important renewable resource.", "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null }, { "id": "Seabed fixed offshore wind turbine", "breadcrumb": "Renewables > Seabed fixed offshore wind turbine", "name": "Seabed fixed offshore wind turbine", "sector": [ "Renewables", "Wind" ], "description": "Seabed fixed offshore wind turbines represent the overwhelming majority of the currently installed offshore wind generating capacity. The energy capture and power generation technology is fundamentally similar to that onshore. Offshore turbines are marinised and configured for optimal operation in the offshore environment. There is a diversity of foundation types including monopiles, multi-piles, gravity foundations and suction caissons. These may be associated with particular support structures including tubular towers, jackets, tripods, lattice towers and hybrids.", "supplyChain": [ "Power generation" ], "trl": [ 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 ], "post_index": [ "A", "A", "A", "A", "B", "C" ], "adoption_stage": "C", "NZErationale": null, "theme": [], "keyCountries": [], "read_more": null, "read_even_more": null } ]